Intention—Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review

Sheeran, Paschal

doi:10.1080/14792772143000003

Cited by 3,688Behavioral Health and InterventionsDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsEnvironmental Education and Sustainability

Intention—Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review

Sheeran, Paschal·2002·European Review of Social Psychology

DOI 10.1080/14792772143000003

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Abstract

This chapter addresses two questions; how big is the “gap” between intentions and behavior, and what psychological variables might be able to “bridge” the intention–behavior gap? A meta-analysis of meta-analyses is used to quantify the gap and a conceptual analysis of intention–behavior discrepancies is presented. Research is described on the extent to which four groups of variables—behavior type, intention type, properties of intention, and cognitive and personality variables—moderate intention–behavior relations. Finally, the scope of the intention construct is discussed in the light of recent evidence concerning the role of habits and automaticity in human behavior.

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The gap between intentions and behaviors is well documented.
“Still, the gap between intentions and behaviors is well documented (Sheeran, 2002)”
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Stated willingness may overestimate actual repayment rates.
“The intention-behaviour gap literature suggests that stated willingness may overestimate actual repayment rates (Sheeran, 2002).”
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Consumers may declare a positive attitude towards a product without expressing the intention to purchase or perform the actually expected behaviour.
“Consumers may declare a positive ATT towards a product without expressing the intention to purchase or perform the actually expected behaviour.”
From Internal factors influencing customer attitude, purchase intention and purchase behaviour with regard to green personal care products. A literature review (2023) · cites this paper as Sheeran, 2002
The results are consistent with previous studies indicating large discrepancies between participants' self-reported intentions and their subsequent behaviour in real-world tasks.
“These results are consistent with previous studies indicating large discrepancies between participants' self-reported intentions and their subsequent behaviour in real-world tasks (Sheeran, 2002).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Sheeran, 2002
Implementation intentions have been proposed as a volitional strategy that can help bridge the intention-behaviour gap.
“Since intentions explain less than 30% of the variance in behaviour across behavioural domains (Sheeran, 2002), implementation intentions have been proposed as a volitional strategy that can help bridge this gap.”
From The effectiveness of implementation intentions in children: A systematic review and meta‐analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Sheeran, 2002

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Evidence that the type of person affects the strength of the perceived behavioural control‐intention relationship
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Decision Making Versus Decision Implementation: An Action Control Approach to Exercise Adoption and Adherence1
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Does State Versus Action Orientation Moderate the Intention‐Behavior Relationship?
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A Field Application of the Fishbein and Ajzen Intention Model
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Smoking Prevention Intervention in Adolescents
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The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections
Ajzen, I. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.613995 · Cited by 4,846 · see citing works
Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence
Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.249 · Cited by 3,732 · see citing works
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The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions
Ajzen, I. (2020) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.195 · Cited by 3,347 · see citing works
Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1 · Cited by 3,236 · see citing works
“For example, Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne, and Jetten (1994) assigned participants the goal intention of forming a nonstereotypical impression of a homeless person (or not) and asked them to provide a written statement of their impression.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Modeling health behavior change: how to predict and modify the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors.
Schwarzer, R. (2008) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00325.x · Cited by 2,569 · see citing works
The Intention–Behavior Gap
Sheeran, P., & Webb, T. L. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12265 · Cited by 2,185 · see citing works
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How are habits formed: modelling habit formation in the real world
Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W., & Wardle, J. (2010) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.674 · Cited by 2,036 · see citing works
The Relationship between Entrepreneurship Education and Entrepreneurial Intentions: A Meta–Analytic Review
Bae, T. J., Qian, S., Miao, C., & Fiet, J. O. (2014) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/etap.12095 · Cited by 1,873 · see citing works
Robustness of the Theory of Planned Behavior in Predicting Entrepreneurial Intentions and Actions
Kautonen, T., van Gelderen, M., & Fink, M. (2013) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/etap.12056 · Cited by 1,523 · see citing works
Theories of behaviour and behaviour change across the social and behavioural sciences: a scoping review
Davis, R., Campbell, R., Hildon, Z., Hobbs, L., & Michie, S. (2015) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2014.941722 · Cited by 1,411 · see citing works
The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 · Cited by 1,232 · see citing works
“As is well known, intentions do not always translate into behaviors [47], [48], [49].”
Interventions to Break and Create Consumer Habits
Verplanken, B., & Wood, W. (2006) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1509/jppm.25.1.90 · Cited by 1,221 · see citing works
Healthcare professionals' intentions and behaviours: A systematic review of studies based on social cognitive theories
Godin, G., Bélanger-Gravel, A., Eccles, M., & Grimshaw, J. (2008) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-3-36 · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
Increasing Vaccination: Putting Psychological Science Into Action
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Rothman, A. J., Leask, J., & Kempe, A. (2017) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100618760521 · Cited by 1,233 · see citing works
The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Ajzen, I., Fishbein, M., Lohmann, S., & Albarracín, D. (2018) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · doi:10.4324/9781315178103-5 · Cited by 1,060 · see citing works
Action planning and coping planning for long-term lifestyle change: theory and assessment
Sniehotta, F. F., Schwarzer, R., Scholz, U., & Schüz, B. (2005) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.258 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies.
Sheeran, P., Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0033065 · Cited by 964 · see citing works
Self-citation
Household energy use: Applying behavioural economics to understand consumer decision-making and behaviour
Frederiks, E. R., Stenner, K., & Hobman, E. V. (2014) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.026 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
Promoting habit formation
Lally, P., & Gardner, B. (2013) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2011.603640 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
The Role of Theory in Developing Effective Health Communications
Fishbein, M., & Cappella, J. N. (2006) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00280.x · Cited by 873 · see citing works
Predicting Different Conceptualizations of System Use: The Competing Roles of Behavioral Intention, Facilitating Conditions, and Behavioral Expectation1
Venkatesh, V., Brown, S. A., Maruping, L. M., & Bala, H. (2008) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/25148853 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking
Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868308316091 · Cited by 858 · see citing works
Explaining the user experience of recommender systems
Knijnenburg, B. P., Willemsen, M. C., Gantner, Z., Soncu, H., & Newell, C. (2012) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-011-9118-4 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Which institutions encourage entrepreneurial growth aspirations?
Estrin, S., Korosteleva, J. A., & Mickiewicz, T. M. (2012) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.05.001 · Cited by 803 · see citing works
Danger Zone Entrepreneurs: The Importance of Resilience and Self–Efficacy for Entrepreneurial Intentions
Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Myatt, T. (2013) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/etap.12006 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Attitudes and Persuasion
Crano, W. D., & Prišlin, R. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190034 · Cited by 787 · see citing works
Interventions to change health behaviours: evidence-based or evidence-inspired?
Michie, S., & Abraham, C. (2004) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/0887044031000141199 · Cited by 783 · see citing works
The social consequences of conspiracism: exposure to conspiracy theories decreases intentions to engage in politics and to reduce one’s carbon footprint
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12018 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
Temporal self-regulation theory: A model for individual health behavior
Hall, P. A., & Fong, G. T. (2007) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437190701492437 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
A Reasoned Action Approach to Health Promotion
Fishbein, M. (2008) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x08326092 · Cited by 669 · see citing works
Online Privacy Concerns and Privacy Management: A Meta-Analytical Review: Privacy Concerns Meta-Analysis
Baruh, L., Secinti, E., & Cemalcilar, Z. (2017) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/jcom.12276 · Cited by 618 · see citing works
Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice
Honkanen, P., Verplanken, B., & Olsen, S. O. (2006) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.190 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Re-examining the influence of trust on online repeat purchase intention: The moderating role of habit and its antecedents
Chiu, C., Hsu, M., Lai, H., & Chang, C. (2012) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2012.05.021 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
The importance of consumer trust for the emergence of a market for green products: The case of organic food
Nuttavuthisit, K., & Thøgersen, J. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2690-5 · Cited by 722 · see citing works
Exploring the intention–behavior link in student entrepreneurship: Moderating effects of individual and environmental characteristics
Shirokova, G., Osiyevskyy, O., & Bogatyreva, K. (2015) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2015.12.007 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
Bridge the gap: Consumers’ purchase intention and behavior regarding sustainable clothing
Rausch, T. M., & Kopplin, C. S. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123882 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Using Social Network Sites: The Effects of Playfulness, Critical Mass and Trust in a Hedonic Context
Sledgianowski, D., & Kulviwat, S. (2009) · Journal of Computer Information Systems · doi:10.1080/08874417.2009.11645342 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Social influence in the theory of planned behaviour: The role of descriptive, injunctive, and in-group norms
White, K. M., Smith, J. R., Terry, D. J., Greenslade, J. H., & McKimmie, B. M. (2009) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466608x295207 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Place attachment and pro-environmental behaviour in national parks: the development of a conceptual framework
Ramkissoon, H. R., Weiler, B., & Smith, L. D. G. (2011) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669582.2011.602194 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Predicting household food waste reduction using an extended theory of planned behaviour
Graham-Rowe, E., Jessop, D. C., & Sparks, P. (2015) · Resources, Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.05.020 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Understanding the intention-behavior gap: The role of intention strength
Conner, M., & Norman, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923464 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
From entrepreneurial intentions to actions: Self-control and action-related doubt, fear, and aversion
van Gelderen, M., Kautonen, T., & Fink, M. (2015) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.01.003 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Behavior Change Techniques in Top-Ranked Mobile Apps for Physical Activity
Conroy, D. E., Yang, C., & Maher, J. P. (2014) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.01.010 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Who Says There is an Intention–Behaviour Gap? Assessing the Empirical Evidence of an Intention–Behaviour Gap in Ethical Consumption
Hassan, L. M., Shiu, E. M. K., & Shaw, D. (2014) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2440-0 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Towards a theory of intentional behaviour change: Plans, planning, and self‐regulation
Sniehotta, F. F. (2009) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/135910708x389042 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Theory, evidence and Intervention Mapping to improve behavior nutrition and physical activity interventions
Brug, J., Oenema, A., & Ferreira, I. (2005) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-2-2 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Expanding the Affective and Normative Components of the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Meta‐Analysis of Anticipated Affect and Moral Norms
Rivis, A., Sheeran, P., & Armitage, C. J. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00558.x · Cited by 443 · see citing works
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Team climate, empowering leadership, and knowledge sharing
Xue, Y., Bradley, J. H., & Liang, H. (2011) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/13673271111119709 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Explaining the Discrepancy between Intentions and Actions: The Case of Hypothetical Bias in Contingent Valuation
Ajzen, I., Brown, T. C., & Carvajal, F. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264079 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
How to Overcome Health-Compromising Behaviors: The Health Action Process Approach
Schwarzer, R., & Luszczynska, A. (2008) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040.13.2.141 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
Ambivalence in Organizations: A Multilevel Approach
Ashforth, B. E., Rogers, K. M., Pratt, M. G., & Pradies, C. (2014) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2014.0909 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence.
Harkin, B., Webb, T. L., Chang, B. P. I., Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Kellar, I., Benn, Y., & Sheeran, P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000025 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Self-citation
Job crafting and job performance: A longitudinal study
Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2014) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2014.969245 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
A meta-analytic review of the effect of implementation intentions on physical activity
Bélanger-Gravel, A., Godin, G., & Amireault, S. (2013) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2011.560095 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Behavioural nudges increase COVID-19 vaccinations
Dai, H., Saccardo, S., Han, M. A., Roh, L., Raja, N., Vangala, S., Modi, H., Pandya, S., Sloyan, M., & Croymans, D. M. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03843-2 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
Who Leaves and Who Stays? A Review and Statistical Meta-Analysis of Hurricane Evacuation Studies
Huang, S., Lindell, M. K., & Prater, C. S. (2015) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916515578485 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Bridging the gap between green behavioral intentions and employee green behavior: The role of green psychological climate
Norton, T. A., Zacher, H., Parker, S. L., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2178 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
How do implementation intentions promote goal attainment? A test of component processes
Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.001 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Interplay Between Goal Intentions and Implementation Intentions
Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271308 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Self-citation
Fertility intentions: An approach based on the theory of planned behavior
Ajzen, I., & Klobas, J. (2013) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2013.29.8 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Reasoned action in the service of goal pursuit.
Ajzen, I., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2019) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000155 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Stigma as a barrier to seeking health care among military personnel with mental health problems
Sharp, M.-L., Fear, N. T., Rona, R. J., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., Jones, N., & Goodwin, L. (2015) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxu012 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Martin Fishbein’s Legacy
Ajzen, I. (2012) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716211423363 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Charitable giving: the effectiveness of a revised theory of planned behaviour model in predicting donating intentions and behaviour
Smith, J. R., & McSweeney, A. (2007) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.906 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Using behavioral insights to increase vaccination policy effectiveness
Betsch, C., Böhm, R., & Chapman, G. B. (2015) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732215600716 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Can implementation intentions help to overcome ego-depletion?
Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00527-9 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
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Designing theoretically-informed implementation interventions
The Improved Clinical Effectiveness through Behavioural Research Group (ICEBeRG) (2006) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-1-4 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Planning and Self-Efficacy in the Adoption and Maintenance of Breast Self-Examination: A Longitudinal Study on Self-Regulatory Cognitions
Łuszczyńska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2003) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/0887044021000019358 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
How entrepreneurial intentions influence entrepreneurial career choices: The moderating influence of social context
Meoli, A., Fini, R., Sobrero, M., & Wiklund, J. (2019) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2019.105982 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
How well do discrete choice experiments predict health choices? A systematic review and meta-analysis of external validity
Quaife, M., Terris‐Prestholt, F., Tanna, G. L. D., & Vickerman, P. T. (2018) · The European Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1007/s10198-018-0954-6 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Bridging the intention–behaviour gap: The role of moral norm
Godin, G., Conner, M. T., & Sheeran, P. (2005) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466604x17452 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Self-citation
A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment
Milkman, K. L., Patel, M. S., Gandhi, L., Graci, H. N., Gromet, D. M., Ho, H., Kay, J., Lee, T. W., Akinola, M., Beshears, J. L., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2101165118 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Acting on intentions: The role of anticipated regret
Abraham, C., & Sheeran, P. (2003) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466603322595248 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Self-citation
Intervention Mapping: Protocol for Applying Health Psychology Theory to Prevention Programmes
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Authors: Sheeran, P.
Affiliations: University of Sheffield (GB)
Corresponding author: Sheeran, Paschal
ORCID: Sheeran, Paschal
Venue: European Review of Social Psychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2002-01
Volume: 12
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-36
ISSN: 1046-3283 (ISSN-L)
1479-277X
DOI: 10.1080/14792772143000003
OpenAlex: W2070257463
Cited by: 3,688
References: 141
Citations by year: 2026: 358 · 2025: 268 · 2024: 231 · 2023: 231 · 2022: 258 · 2021: 234 · 2020: 245 · 2019: 260 · 2018: 203 · 2017: 197 · 2016: 194 · 2015: 167 · 2014: 152 · 2013: 151 · 2012: 111
FWCI: 39.09
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: European Review of Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Education and Sustainability
Keywords: intention-behavior gap, behavioral intention, behavior types, cognitive factors, personality factors, habit, automaticity, moderators

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Intention—Behavior Relations: A Conceptual and Empirical Review

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