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Observing the unexpected enhances infants’ learning and exploration
Open accessAbstract
Given the overwhelming quantity of information available from the environment, how do young learners know what to learn about and what to ignore? We found that 11-month-old infants (N = 110) used violations of prior expectations as special opportunities for learning. The infants were shown events that violated expectations about object behavior or events that were nearly identical but did not violate expectations. The sight of an object that violated expectations enhanced learning and promoted information-seeking behaviors; specifically, infants learned more effectively about objects that committed violations, explored those objects more, and engaged in hypothesis-testing behaviors that reflected the particular kind of violation seen. Thus, early in life, expectancy violations offer a wedge into the problem of what to learn.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Stahl, A. E., & Feigenson, L.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stahl, Aimee E.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2015-04-03
- Volume
- 348
- Issue
- 6230
- Pages
- 91-94
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC5861377
- OpenAlex
- W1980054804
- Cited by
- 617
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 9
- FWCI
- 93.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NSF Graduate Research Fellowship (DGE-1232825)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Keywords
- expectancy violation, infant learning, exploration, information seeking, hypothesis testing, prior expectations, object behavior, surprise, early learning, cognitive development
- MeSH terms
- Child Development, Cognition, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Infant, Learning, Knowledge
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