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Waning of vaccine effectiveness against moderate and severe covid-19 among adults in the US from the VISION network: test negative, case-control study
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To estimate the effectiveness of mRNA vaccines against moderate and severe covid-19 in adults by time since second, third, or fourth doses, and by age and immunocompromised status. Design: Test negative case-control study. Setting: Hospitals, emergency departments, and urgent care clinics in 10 US states, 17 January 2021 to 12 July 2022. Participants: 893 461 adults (≥18 years) admitted to one of 261 hospitals or to one of 272 emergency department or 119 urgent care centers for covid-like illness tested for SARS-CoV-2. Main outcome measures: The main outcome was waning of vaccine effectiveness with BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) or mRNA-1273 (Moderna) vaccine during the omicron and delta periods, and the period before delta was dominant using logistic regression conditioned on calendar week and geographic area while adjusting for age, race, ethnicity, local virus circulation, immunocompromised status, and likelihood of being vaccinated. Results: 45 903 people admitted to hospital with covid-19 (cases) were compared with 213 103 people with covid-like illness who tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 (controls), and 103 287 people admitted to emergency department or urgent care with covid-19 (cases) were compared with 531 168 people with covid-like illness who tested negative for SARS-CoV-2. In the omicron period, vaccine effectiveness against covid-19 requiring admission to hospital was 89% (95% confidence interval 88% to 90%) within two months after dose 3 but waned to 66% (63% to 68%) by four to five months. Vaccine effectiveness of three doses against emergency department or urgent care visits was 83% (82% to 84%) initially but waned to 46% (44% to 49%) by four to five months. Waning was evident in all subgroups, including young adults and individuals who were not immunocompromised; although waning was morein people who were immunocompromised. Vaccine effectiveness increased among most groups after a fourth dose in whom this booster was recommended. Conclusions: Effectiveness of mRNA vaccines against moderate and severe covid-19 waned with time after vaccination. The findings support recommendations for a booster dose after a primary series and consideration of additional booster doses.
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“Further, although boosting by BNT162b2 or CoronaVac restores strong protection against hospitalization and death33–35, the incremental effectiveness of BNT162b2 boosters against such outcomes waned over the course of 4–6 months34 for both adults and the elderly36.”
From Real-world COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against the Omicron BA.2 variant in a SARS-CoV-2 infection-naive population (2023) · cites this paper as [36]
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“This led to a decline in vaccine effectiveness (VE) over time, as shown in several observational studies [2, 3].”
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Citations
Cites
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“While both COVID-19 vaccination and natural infection generate protection against severe COVID-19, this protection wanes over time, prompting discussion on the optimal timing of booster vaccination 1,2 .”
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“Hence, information on VE and waning protection over time has immediate public health implications [19] and is essential for COVID-19 vaccine decision-makers and healthcare providers to provide recommendations and increase vaccine confidence among patients, particularly those at higher risk for…”
BackgroundAndersson, N. W., Thiesson, E. M., Baum, U., Pihlström, N., Starrfelt, J., Faksová, K., Poukka, E., Lund, L. C., Hansen, C. H., Aakjær, M., et al. (2023) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2022-074325 · Cited by 29
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“adults aged ≥18 years reported that high initial vaccine effectiveness against unplanned care waned across age groups but was more pronounced among immunocompromised persons; no data on vaccine effectiveness among nursing home residents were reported (8).”
BackgroundMesenchymal Stem Cells in the Treatment of COVID-19
Guo, B.-C., Wu, K., Chen, C., Lin, W.-Y., Chang, Y., Lee, T.-A., Lin, M.-J., & Wu, H. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241914800 · Cited by 21
“However, their effectiveness against COVID-19 has declined with the emergence of new virus variants [10].”
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“Finally, we analyze more recent pandemic periods, including the Omicron peak, which has been characterized by high infection rates and waning immunity from prior vaccination or infection (Ferdinands et al., 2022), as well as the period after Omicron, when COVID-19 infections and mortality declined.”
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“…evolution contributing to episodic immunological escape, there is an ongoing need for effective therapeutics to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that maintain antiviral activity against the prevailing variants of concern (VOC) for severe acute respiratory syndrome corona-virus 2 [1, 2].”
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Immune Response following BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination in Pediatric Cancer Patients
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“Waning is even more rapid in immunocompromised patients and is also seen after a 3rd vaccination [35].”
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“Other studies have also shown a positive effect of booster doses in preventing COVID-19 hospitalisation, although our results were lower than most (e.g. we found an all-product VE of 70% at 60–119 days, 27% ≥ 120 days from booster dose, vs 89% within 60 days and 66% at ≥ 120 days [35]).”
BackgroundResultMaltezou, H. C., Basoulis, D., Bonelis, K., Gamaletsou, M. N., Giannouchos, T. V., Karantoni, E., Karapanou, Α., Kounouklas, K., Livanou, M. E., Zotou, M., et al. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.01.067 · Cited by 16
“In our study a mean of 128 days elapsed since the last COVID-19 vaccine dose, which is in accordance with the gradual decline of protection from the fourth month after booster vaccination, as shown in real-life studies [9,11,12,19,33].”
ResultLunt, R., Quinot, C., Kirsebom, F. C. M., Andrews, N. J., Skarnes, C., Letley, L. H., Haskins, D., Angel, C., Firminger, S., Ratcliffe, K., et al. (2023) · Journal of Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2023.10.016 · Cited by 16
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“As reported by other studies, we observed slower waning of VEh compared with VEi [19,29-33].”
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“Vaccine protection may be inadequate as soon as 3–9 months after vaccine, as well as within subgroups [81– 84].”
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“26 In comparison, our study found an adjusted fourth dose marginal vaccine effectiveness (compared with a third dose) against COVID-19-associated hospitalization and death of 70% (95% CI, 47–83).”
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“However, the lack of IM vaccine-induced mucosal responses and low durability have rendered current vaccines ineffective at preventing initial infection and reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission [11,12].”
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“Normally, antibodies usually degrade over time [97, 98].”
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“This underlines the importance of continuing other epidemic control, such as wearing masks in public spaces, especially hospitals and transportation hubs [29].”
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“vaccine effectiveness and waning protection over time has immediate public health implications.(26) Furthermore, this information is essential for COVID-19 vaccine decisionmakers and health care providers (HCP), to provide and convey presumptive”
BackgroundWaning effectiveness of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines against inpatient and emergency department encounters
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“Although these vaccines successfully prevented COVID- 19-associated hospitalization and death [1, 2], their effectiveness declined over time due to several factors, including waning vaccine-induced immunity and the emergence of the immune evasive Omicron variant [3, 4].”
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“Vaccination played a critical role in containing the COVID‑19 pandemic and reducing its ongo‑ ing global disease burden [31, 84–86], and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommend that all persons ≥ 6 months of age receive updated COVID‑19…”
Yan, V. K. C., Wan, E. Y. F., Ye, X., Mok, A. H. Y., Lai, F. T. T., Chui, C. S. L., Li, X., Wong, C. K. H., Li, P. H., Ma, T., et al. (2023) · Emerging Microbes & Infections · doi:10.1080/22221751.2023.2209201 · Cited by 10
“months after the third dose, to 76% shortly after the fourth dose among adults above 65 years of age [29].”
BackgroundJorgensen, S. C. J., Brown, K. A., Clarke, A. E., Schwartz, K. L., Maxwell, C. J., Daneman, N., Kwong, J. C., & MacFadden, D. R. (2024) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciae182 · Cited by 9
“However, the effectiveness of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines against infection and, to a lesser extent, severe illness wanes over time [31, 32]; a tradeoff of using a short risk interval was that we could not assess if the impact of the vaccines on antibiotic prescribing diminishes over time.”
Zheng, Z., Yousefi, M., MacCormac, D., Radin, J. M., Sun, T., Wilson, A., Shah, R., Skornicki, M., Sheridan, P. E., Toyip, A., et al. (2025) · Vaccine X · doi:10.1016/j.jvacx.2025.100737 · Cited by 7
Humoral and cellular immunity against diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants
Chen, C., Wang, X., & Zhang, Z. (2023) · Journal of genetics and genomics/Journal of Genetics and Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.jgg.2023.10.003 · Cited by 10
Follmann, D. A., Wang, X., Baden, L. R., Sahly, H. M. E., Essink, B. J., Gilbert, P. B., Janes, H., Kelley, C. F., Berman, M. A., Frank, I., et al. (2024) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofae689 · Cited by 8
Waning vaccine response to severe COVID-19 outcomes during omicron predominance in Thailand
Intawong, K., Chariyalertsak, S., Chalom, K., Wonghirundecha, T., Kowatcharakul, W., Thongprachum, A., Chotirosniramit, N., Noppakun, K., Khwanngern, K., Teacharak, W., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284130 · Cited by 9
Yang, F., Tran, T. N.-A., Howerton, E., Boni, M. F., & Servadio, J. L. (2023) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-023-03025-z · Cited by 10
Covid-19 mortality: the Proportionality Hypothesis
Cairns, A. J. G., Blake, D. P., Kessler, A. R., Kessler, M., & Mathur, R. (2024) · European Actuarial Journal · doi:10.1007/s13385-024-00400-9 · Cited by 9
Wang, C. Y., Kuo, B.-S., Lee, Y.-H., Ho, Y.-H., Pan, Y., Yang, Y.-T., Chang, H.-C., Lin-fang, F., & Peng, W. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.108887 · Cited by 7
“47,48 It should be noted first that the measures of the descriptive UB-612’s protective effect are not intended to be directly comparable to those used for assessing the effectiveness or efficacy of currently approved vaccines.”
BackgroundCherneha, M., Zydek, I., Braß, P., Korth, J., Jansen, S., Eßer, S., Karsten, C. B., Meyer, F., Kraiselburd, I., Dittmer, U., et al. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12070785 · Cited by 7
“This is consistent with prior studies, which demonstrated a decrease in SARS-CoV-2-specific ELISA antibody concentrations six months after vaccination in both healthy controls and PLWH [37,38].”
ResultBellavite, P., Donzelli, A., & Isidoro, C. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13237291 · Cited by 7
“In general, full vaccine protection (coincident with the highest concentration of anti-Spike IgG) is assumed to start >14 days after the second dose or the booster [123].”
Nationwide analysis of COVID-19 death rate throughout the pandemic in Italy
Mattiuzzi, C., & Lippi, G. (2023) · Journal of Laboratory and Precision Medicine · doi:10.21037/jlpm-22-75 · Cited by 7
Li, H., Ping, F., Li, X., Wang, Z., Xiao, J., Jiang, H., Xue, Y., Quan, J., Yao, H., Zheng, X., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1172089 · Cited by 7
Semenzato, L., Botton, J., Vu, S. L., Jabagi, M.-J., Cuenot, F., Drouin, J., Dray‐Spira, R., Weill, A., & Zureik, M. (2023) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofad460 · Cited by 8
“Another US study by Ferdinands et al. [28] between January 17, 2021, and July 12, 2022, estimated the effectiveness of the first booster dose against the risk of hospitalization at 89% (95% CI, 88%–90”
BackgroundDari, A., Jacqmin, P., Iwaki, Y., Neyens, M., Gars, M. L., SADOFF, J. C., Hardt, K., Ruiz‐Guiñazú, J., & Ruixo, J. J. P. (2023) · CPT Pharmacometrics & Systems Pharmacology · doi:10.1002/psp4.13025 · Cited by 6
“The mechanistic modeling approach presented in the current work has four advantages: (1) it constitutes a step forward with respect to predictability compared to the empirical models, (2) is less complex than a QSP model but accounts for the key elements of the immune response, (3) is informed by the available clinica…”
Marron, L., Mateo‐Urdiales, A., O’Donnell, J., Robinson, E., & Domegan, L. M. (2024) · Eurosurveillance · doi:10.2807/1560-7917.es.2024.29.28.2300697 · Cited by 9
COVID‐19 vaccine effectiveness in children by age groups. A population‐based study in Galicia, Spain
Mallah, N., Pardo‐Seco, J., Ares‐Gómez, S., López‐Pérez, L., González‐Pérez, J., Rosón, B., Otero‐Barrós, M., Durán‐Parrondo, C., Nartallo‐Penas, V., Mirás‐Carballal, S., et al. (2023) · Pediatric Allergy and Immunology · doi:10.1111/pai.14037 · Cited by 6
“24,25 These findings underscore the need for a booster dose schedule to maintain effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2.”
BackgroundKumar, P., Parveen, P., Raj, N., Kumar, M., Fakhri, K. U., Kumar, S., Khan, A. A., Alanazi, A. M., Solanki, R., Harsha, H., et al. (2024) · Archives of Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s00203-023-03820-5 · Cited by 6
“Hence, vaccines alone may not offer absolute protection and there are several bad responsive effect, such as hyper activation of immune response, cytokine storm, several other inflations (Ferdinands et al. 2022).”
Shachor‐Meyouhas, Y., Dabaja‐Younis, H., Magid, A., Leiba, R., Szwarcwort‐Cohen, M., Almog, R., Mekel, M., Weissman, A., Hyams, G., Gepstein, V., et al. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11020283 · Cited by 7
“In times of shortage of vaccines, the priority for booster vaccines should be the elderly, chronically ill people and susceptible patients, as demonstrated by some studies, which showed that the booster protected from hospitalization and death in Israel and in other countries [4,6,8].”
BackgroundGui, Y., Cao, Y., He, J., Zhao, C., Zheng, W., Qian, L., Cheng, J., Yu, C., Chen, Y., Lou, K., et al. (2023) · Life Metabolism · doi:10.1093/lifemeta/load019 · Cited by 6
Rhodes, S., Demou, E., Wilkinson, J., Cherrie, M. P. C., Edge, R., Gittins, M., Katikireddi, S. V., Kromydas, T., Mueller, W., Pearce, N. E., et al. (2023) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2023-108931 · Cited by 6
“11 In the UK, vaccine delivery was not mandated but was initially prioritised for certain high-risk occupational groups, such as healthcare workers.”
BackgroundWang, L., Swayze, S., Bodner, K., Calzavara, A., Harrigan, S. P., Siddiqi, A., Baral, S. D., Austin, P. C., Smylie, J., Koh, M., et al. (2026) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaf051 · Cited by 5
Pandemic Open Data: Blessing or Curse?
Rinner, C. (2023) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1001594 · Cited by 5
Mostafavi, F., Bahardoust, M., Sera, F., Amirabadizadeh, A., Allahyari, S., Ssentongod, P., Karami, M., & Nazari, S. S. H. (2024) · Journal of Research in Health Sciences · doi:10.34172/jrhs.2024.161 · Cited by 5
Zak, A. J., Hoang, T., Yee, C. M., Rizvi, S. M., Prabhu, P., & Wen, F. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241914622 · Cited by 5
Prior COVID-19 Diagnosis, Severe Outcomes, and Long COVID among U.S. Adults, 2022
Nguyen, K. H., Bao, Y., Chen, S., Bednarczyk, R. A., Vasudevan, L., & Corlin, L. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12060669 · Cited by 5
“…[24,31–33], the waning effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines over time underscores the importance of being up to date with all COVID-19 vaccination doses for additional protection against infection, particularly for vulnerable populations who have a higher risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes [34–37].”
BackgroundUemura, K., Ono, S., Michihata, N., Yamana, H., & Yasunaga, H. (2024) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-024-09488-6 · Cited by 4
Airway and Systemic Immune Responses Following the Third COVID-19 Vaccination in COPD Patients
Southworth, T. W., Jackson, N. A., & Singh, D. (2023) · International Journal of COPD · doi:10.2147/copd.s433269 · Cited by 5
Jones, R., & Ponomarenko, A. (2023) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202304.0248.v1 · Cited by 4
DeCuir, J., Surie, D., Zhu, Y., Lauring, A. S., Gaglani, M., McNeal, T., Ghamande, S. A., Peltan, I. D., Brown, S. M., Ginde, A. A., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.01.07.24300910 · Cited by 5
Self-citationTsang, T. K., Sullivan, S. G., Meng, Y., Lai, F. T. T., Fan, M., Huang, X., Lin, Y., Peng, L., Zhang, C., Yang, B., et al. (2024) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-024-03597-4 · Cited by 5
“It is well established that the effectiveness of these vaccines wanes with time [16, 17].”
BackgroundStoll, S. S., Desai, S., & Levit, E. (2023) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2023.104574 · Cited by 4
Vaccine-induced or hybrid immunity and COVID-19-associated mortality during the Omicron wave
Weigert, M., Beyerlein, A., Katz, K., Schulte, R., Hartl, W. H., & Küchenhoff, H. (2023) · Deutsches Ärzteblatt international · doi:10.3238/arztebl.m2023.0051 · Cited by 5
Exploring the potential benefits of mucosal COVID-19 vaccines: opportunities and challenges
Croda, J. (2023) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(23)00363-8 · Cited by 4
Paret, K., Beyhaghi, H., Herring, W. L., Mauskopf, J., Shane, L. G., & Rousculp, M. D. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12010074 · Cited by 4
“In particular, the protection against cases of COVID-19 that is offered by the mRNA vaccines has been shown to wane faster than the protection against serious disease (including hospitalization and death) offered by these vaccines [25,47].”
BackgroundWu, S., Li, Y., Baral, S., Mishra, S., Koh, M., Golding, H., Kwong, J. C., & Wei, X. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0299304 · Cited by 3
Assessing the dynamics and impact of COVID-19 vaccination on disease spread: A data-driven approach
Waseel, F., Streftaris, G., Rudrusamy, B., & Dass, S. C. (2024) · Infectious Disease Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.idm.2024.02.010 · Cited by 4
“Several studies, including (Amin & BN, 2023; Ferdinands et al., 2022; Husin et al., 2022; Levin et al., 2021; Lodz et al., 2024), and (Townsend, Hassler, Sah, Galvani, & Dornburg, 2022), have shown a decline in antibody levels after vaccination.”
BackgroundMethodHarrigan, S. P., Fibke, C. D., García, H. A. V., Mak, S., Wilton, J., Prystajecky, N., Tyson, J. R., Wang, L., Sander, B., Baral, S., et al. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae266 · Cited by 3
“Previous studies have shown that vaccine protection against mild to severe COVID-19 decreases after around 5 months, 26 and as such, this was used in our vaccination definition.”
Alsaeed, A. A., Alkhalaf, A. M., Alomran, A. A., Alsfyani, W., Alhaddad, F., & Alhaddad, M. J. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.39234 · Cited by 4
Souan, L., Abdel‐Razeq, H., Zughbieh, M. A., Badr, S. A., & Sughayer, M. A. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15071439 · Cited by 3
Adly, H. M., Saleh, S. A. K., Garout, M. A., Abdulkhaliq, A. A., Khafagy, A. A., Saati, A. A., AlJahdali, I. A., Alandiyjany, M. N., & Al‐Tawfiq, J. A. (2023) · Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1007/s44197-023-00146-9 · Cited by 6
“These findings align with previous research suggesting that the majority of COVID-19 cases are mild to moderate in severity among vaccinated individuals and in the latter waves of the pandemic [15, 16].”
ResultA multi-country analysis of COVID-19 hospitalizations by vaccination status
Gonçalves, B. P., Jassat, W., Baruch, J., Hashmi, M., Rojek, A. M., Dasgupta, A., Martín‐Loeches, I., Reyes, L. F., Piubelli, C., Citarella, B. W., et al. (2023) · Med · doi:10.1016/j.medj.2023.08.005 · Cited by 4
van den Berg, J. M., Blom, M. T., Overbeek, J. A., Remmelzwaal, S., Herings, R. M. C., & Elders, P. J. M. (2025) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines13060564 · Cited by 3
“For example, studies from Qatar [5], the United Kingdom [6], and the United States [7] have shown that vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection declines over time, especially in older individuals and those with comorbidities.”
Wolff, M. J., Charpentier, P., Canals, A., Vial, C., Hormazábal, J., Cortés, J., & Silva, M. (2023) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.12.035 · Cited by 3
Manley, H. J., Li, N. C., Hsu, C. M., Weiner, D. E., Miskulin, D. C., Harford, A., Johnson, D. S., & Lacson, E. K., Jr. (2024) · Kidney360 · doi:10.34067/kid.0000000000000373 · Cited by 3
Nassoro, A. A., Millanzi, W. C., & Herman, P. Z. (2024) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.2171 · Cited by 3
“The COVID-19 vaccine task force has focused on the companies to prioritize and fulfil their contracts to the African vaccine trust, working with the government and private sectors to ensure high uptake of the vaccine in low-and middle-income countries in Africa and beyond (Ferdinands et al., 2022).”
BackgroundKale, D., Shoesmith, E., Herbeć, A., & Shahab, L. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-080778 · Cited by 3
“20 Thus, administering additional COVID-19 vaccine doses to appropriate individuals (ie, elderly, those with vulnerabilities, healthcare professionals) regularly may be necessary to protect susceptible individuals against hospitalisation and death.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ferdinands, J. M., Rao, S., Dixon, B. E., Mitchell, P. K., DeSilva, M. B., Irving, S. A., Lewis, N., Natarajan, K., Stenehjem, E., Grannis, S. J., Han, J., McEvoy, C., Ong, T. C., Naleway, A. L., Reese, S. E., Embi, P. J., Dascomb, K., Klein, N. P., Griggs, E. P., Liao, I.-C., Yang, D.-H., Fadel, W. F., Grisel, N., Goddard, K., Patel, P., Murthy, K., Birch, R., Valvi, N. R., Arndorfer, J., Zerbo, O., Dickerson, M., Raiyani, C., Williams, J., Bozio, C. H., Blanton, L., Link-Gelles, R., Barron, M. A., Gaglani, M., Thompson, M. G., & Fireman, B.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- University of Colorado Anschutz (US)
- Regenstrief Institute (US)
- Westat (United States) (US)
- HealthPartners (US)
- Kaiser Permanente (US)
- NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
- Intermountain Healthcare (US)
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Baylor Scott & White Medical Center - Temple (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ferdinands, Jill M
- ORCID
- Ferdinands, Jill M
- Rao, Suchitra
- Dixon, Brian E
- Mitchell, Patrick K
- DeSilva, Malini B
- Irving, Stephanie A
- Lewis, Ned
- Natarajan, Karthik
- Stenehjem, Edward
- Grannis, Shaun J
- McEvoy, Charlene
- Ong, Toan C
- Naleway, Allison L
- Reese, Sarah E
- Dascomb, Kristin
- Klein, Nicola P
- Griggs, Eric P
- Liao, I-Chia
- Yang, Duck-Hye
- Fadel, William F
- Goddard, Kristin
- Patel, Palak
- Murthy, Kempapura
- Valvi, Nimish R
- Zerbo, Ousseny
- Dickerson, Monica
- Raiyani, Chandni
- Bozio, Catherine H
- Blanton, Lenee
- Barron, Michelle A
- Gaglani, Manjusha
- Thompson, Mark G
- Fireman, Bruce
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2022-10-03
- Volume
- 379
- Pages
- e072141
- ISSN
- 1756-1833 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9527398
- OpenAlex
- W4300863078
- Cited by
- 185
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 5
- FWCI
- 21.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Vaccine Coverage and Hesitancy
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- waning vaccine effectiveness, COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, mRNA vaccines, BNT162b2, mRNA-1273, booster vaccination, immunocompromised patients, hospitalization, emergency department visits, Omicron variant, Delta variant, adults, test-negative case-control, COVID-19 vaccination
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Vaccine Efficacy, BNT162 Vaccine, Humans, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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