Disclosing victimisation to healthcare professionals in Sweden: a constructivist grounded theory study of experiences among men exposed to interpersonal violence
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To develop a theoretical model concerning male victims' processes of disclosing experiences of victimisation to healthcare professionals in Sweden. Design: Qualitative interview study. Setting: Informants were recruited from the general population and a primary healthcare centre in Sweden. Participants: Informants were recruited by means of theoretical sampling among respondents in a previous quantitative study. Eligible for this study were men reporting sexual, physical and/or emotional violence victimisation by any perpetrator and reporting that they either had talked to a healthcare provider about their victimisation or had wanted to do so. Method: Constructivist grounded theory. 12 interviews were performed and saturation was reached after 9. Results: Several factors influencing the process of disclosing victimisation can be recognised from previous studies concerning female victims, including shame, fear of negative consequences of disclosing, specifics of the patient–provider relationship and time constraints within the healthcare system. However, this study extends previous knowledge by identifying strong negative effects of adherence to masculinity norms for victimised men and healthcare professionals on the process of disclosing. It is also emphasised that the process of disclosing cannot be separated from other, even seemingly unrelated, circumstances in the men's lives. Conclusions: The process of disclosing victimisation to healthcare professionals was a complex process involving the men's experiences of victimisation, adherence to gender norms, their life circumstances and the dynamics of the actual healthcare encounter.
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Often a crisis has to occur before men seek help.
“This proposition would appear to be sensible as we know that often a crisis has to occur before men seek help. Therefore emergency legal, financial and medical help would be the most practical initial response [18, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
The ‘Masculinity’ section (page unavailable) describes some men who downplayed their need for help until they had a breakdown, and even then needed someone else to help them seek professional care. This supports crisis preceding help-seeking in those cases, but the study does not establish that a crisis often has to occur before men seek help generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn two included studies of heterosexual men, commitment to relationship and concern for the perpetrator of the abuse were barriers to help-seeking.
“Two of the included studies of heterosexual men discussed commitment to their relationship and concern for the perpetrator of the abuse as both barriers to help-seeking.14 20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
In Results, under ‘Experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ (page unavailable), the paper reports that a man avoided disclosure because he wanted to protect his abusive father. This supports concern for a perpetrator as a barrier to disclosure, but not concern for an intimate partner; the passages do not identify commitment to a relationship as a barrier or establish that the participants were heterosexual men. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOne of the most recurrent fears was losing custody of their children.
“One of the most recurrent fears was losing custody of their children.14 15 20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
In ‘Experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ (page not available), the paper reports that some men feared losing child custody rights, particularly when the perpetrator was a former female intimate partner. It does not establish that this was one of the most recurrent fears. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCommitment to relationship was closely linked to fear of losing contact with children.
“Commitment to the relationship was closely linked to the fear of losing contact with children as described above in relation to fear of disclosure.14 15 20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
In ‘The balance’ > ‘Experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ (page not provided), the paper reports that some men feared losing child custody rights if they disclosed victimisation involving a former female partner. It does not link that fear to commitment to the relationship. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Simmons et al study, a heterosexual respondent expressed doubt in confidentiality of health system in a small town.
“A heterosexual respondent in the Simmons et al study expressed doubt in the confidentiality of the health system within a small town.20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
In ‘Experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ (page unavailable), the paper reports confidentiality concerns among men in small villages and quotes a respondent doubting that people within healthcare would keep his story private. It says that respondent had a female intimate partner, but does not identify his sexual orientation as heterosexual. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The qualitative findings suggest a mixed response by men to referral from primary health care, with some men not perceiving it as a source of help and doubting the compassion and approach to confidentiality of general practitioners.
“The qualitative findings suggest a mixed response by men to referral from primary health care, with some men not perceiving it as a source of help as well as doubting the compassion and approach to confidentiality of general practitioners [16, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
The Results and ‘the door’ sections describe varied help-seeking experiences, including men who sought help and men who needed help contacting healthcare professionals. The ‘professionals’ gender expectations’ section reports perceived lack of compassion, and ‘experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ reports doubts about confidentiality. These findings concern healthcare professionals generally; the paper does not establish a mixed response specifically to referral from primary care or attribute these doubts specifically to general practitioners. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThere is a consistent theme that female professional help in referral is acceptable, if not preferable for male victims of DVA, with no comparable discussion around male professional help in these settings.
“There is a consistent theme that female professional help in referral is acceptable, if not preferable for male victims of DVA with no comparable discussion around male professional help in these settings [16, 20, 23, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
The Discussion (‘Our results in relation to other studies’; page not provided) reports that all people who helped the men contact healthcare professionals were women and that some men disclosed only because their provider was a woman. But the helpers were not identified as professionals, and the paper does not establish a preference for female professionals in referrals. It also discusses why the men might find disclosure to other men difficult, although not specifically to male professionals. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOther men felt that general practice is a good place to disclose DVA and be referred, and that this process is facilitated by continuity of care and an individual approach by clinicians.
“Other men felt that general practice is a good place to disclose DVA and be referred, and that this process is facilitated by continuity of care and an individual approach by clinicans [16, 23, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
The caring encounter section (page unavailable) says some men needed a long-term relationship before disclosing and that encounters needed to be individually tailored. Clinical implications (page unavailable) says disclosure can enable relevant referrals. But the study addresses disclosure to healthcare professionals across settings and different kinds of violence; it does not establish that men regarded general practice specifically as a good place to disclose DVA and be referred. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredNo specific routes of help were discussed by the men in the included studies, but there was a strong theme of the need for confidentiality and physical privacy in disclosing.
“No specific routes of help were discussed by the men in the included studies but there was a strong theme of the need for confidentiality and physical privacy in disclosing [16, 20, 23, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
In ‘Experiences and fears in relation to the healthcare system’ (page unavailable), men describe concerns about confidentiality and a lack of privacy in the physical space, supporting that theme. But the Discussion’s ‘Clinical implications’ describes men getting help to contact healthcare professionals and being asked about victimisation; the paper therefore does discuss some routes toward disclosure, contrary to the claim’s unqualified first part. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLegal and housing advice would be welcome by male victims of DVA.
“This suggests that legal and housing advice would be welcome [19, 25].”
From Help seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse: an example of an integrated mixed methods synthesis of systematic review evidence defining methodological terms (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
The Discussion’s Clinical implications section (page not available) reports that men described talking about victimisation as an unmet need and says disclosure can enable help and relevant referrals. It does not say that male victims would welcome legal or housing advice specifically; searches for those terms found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe previous systematic review identified twelve relevant primary-level qualitative interview and survey studies of the experiences of male victims of domestic violence and abuse.
“The systematic review also identified twelve relevant primary-level qualitative interview and survey studies of the experiences of male victims of DVA [16–27] (Table 4).”
The searches identified 12 relevant qualitative studies.
“The searches identified 12 relevant qualitative studies (figure 1).11–22”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
Studies in healthcare settings suggested continuity of contact (care) was favoured by men.
“Studies in the healthcare settings suggested that continuity of contact (care) was favoured by men.11 18 20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
Simmons et al proposed confidence could be built in one session for some, while others required longer term relationship for disclosure.
“Simmons et al proposed that in the caring encounter confidence could be built in just one session for some, whereas others required a longer term relationship for disclosure.20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
In Simmons 2016 study, author described supportive, empathetic attitude from professional opens 'the door' for disclosure.
“In the Simmons 2016 study the author described how a supportive, empathetic attitude from a professional opens ‘the door’ for disclosure.20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
Simmons et al described that sense of urgency and readiness to talk were strong factors increasing likelihood of disclosing victimisation, while low perceived need for help decreased likelihood.
“Simmons et al described that ‘a sense of urgency to seek help and feeling ready to talk about one’s victimisation were strong factors that tipped the balance towards a high likelihood of disclosing victimisation, whereas a low perceived need for help tipped the balance towards a low likelihood of disclosure.’20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
Review highlights crisis points as important trigger to help-seeking.
“Our review highlights crisis points as an important trigger to help-seeking.17 18 20”
From Help-seeking by male victims of domestic violence and abuse (DVA): a systematic review and qualitative evidence synthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
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The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Huntley, A. L., Potter, L., Williamson, E., Malpass, A., Szilassy, E., & Feder, G. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021960 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“In the Simmons 2016 study the author described how a supportive, empathetic attitude from a professional opens ‘the door’ for disclosure.(20) A heterosexual participant in the Morgan et al study speculated: I think it'd probably be a good thing because I bet there's a load of it going on all the time.”
BackgroundInfluentialBarriers to Men’s Help Seeking for Intimate Partner Violence
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“Much of the research to date has come from help-seeking samples (Hines & Douglas, 2011; Morgan & Wells, 2016; Simmons et al., 2016).”
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“themes of Appropriate professional approaches and Diminished confidence and despondency and is specifically addressed by five of the original 12 primary-level qualitative studies [16, 18, 23, 25, 26].”
BackgroundResultInfluential
- Authors
- Simmons, J., Brüggemann, A. J., & Swahnberg, K.
- Affiliations
- Linköping University (SE)
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Corresponding author
- Simmons, Johanna
- Venue
- BMJ Open
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2016-06
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e010847
- ISSN
- 2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4916578
- OpenAlex
- W2464863680
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 1.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Region Östergötland
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- healthcare workers, masculine norms, gender norms, shame, fear of negative consequences, patient-provider relationship, primary care, sexual violence, physical violence, emotional abuse
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Female, Health Personnel, Humans, Interviews as Topic, Male, Men, Middle Aged, Models, Theoretical, Sexual Partners, Sweden, Violence, Crime Victims, Disclosure, Qualitative Research, Masculinity, Grounded Theory
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