Barriers to Men’s Help Seeking for Intimate Partner Violence

“The main objective of this final step was to ensure that that the final themes represented the lived experiences of the men in the sample and were contextually meaningful (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2012; Carpenter & Suto, 2008; Guest et al., 2012).”

“This line of inquiry has also confirmed that men can be the victims and women the perpetrators of IPV (Archer, 2000; Breiding, 2014; Desmarais et al., 2012; Dutton et al., 2005).”

“…with their physical and mental health as a result of the abuse they had experienced, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; e.g., Hines & Douglas, 2011), anxiety and depression (Coker et al., 2002; Próspero, 2007; Próspero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007), and suicidality (McLaughlin et al., 2012).”

“A thematic map was produced to ensure that the codes (extracted data) and the entire data set were represented by the themes and subthemes (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Maguire & Delahunt, 2017).”

“Early work also suggested that the violence and abuse suffered by male victims of female perpetrated abuse was not comparable to that experienced by female victims (Flynn, 1990; James, 1996; Kelly & Johnson, 2008).”

“Research following this perspective has highlighted the complexity of IPV, indicating that men’s violence may be better explained by a complex array of factors including adverse childhood experiences and trauma (Whitfield et al., 2003).”

“This is highly relevant because it means that what is stigmatizing in one social context may not be in another (Bos et al., 2013).”

“…contemporary accounts have adopted terminology to delineate the types of IPV observed within relationships, e.g., reciprocal and nonreciprocal (Whitaker et al., 2007); symmetrical and asymmetrical (Mennicke & Kulkarni, 2016), bidirectional and unidirectional (Caetano et al., 2005; Renner &…”

“Early research exploring male victimization and female perpetration, frequently constructed women’s violence within a self-defense narrative (Dobash & Dobash, 2004; Hamberger & Potente, 1994; Saunders, 2002).”

“, isolation, exclusion, alone, lonely) (Swain, 2018).”

“There were elements here of what Overstreet and Quinn (2013) referred to as internalized stigma, in terms of the participants’ own beliefs relating to their gender and their own expectations of masculinity, for example, “It is very difficult to show others my failure as a male” (Participant 147, 74…”

“Alternative explanations for IPV have also been proposed, for example, theories of family violence and general aggression (Felson, 2002).”

“Early research exploring male victimization and female perpetration, frequently constructed women’s violence within a self-defense narrative (Dobash & Dobash, 2004; Hamberger & Potente, 1994; Saunders, 2002).”

“…accounts have adopted terminology to delineate the types of IPV observed within relationships, e.g., reciprocal and nonreciprocal (Whitaker et al., 2007); symmetrical and asymmetrical (Mennicke & Kulkarni, 2016), bidirectional and unidirectional (Caetano et al., 2005; Renner & Whitney, 2012).”

“Female perpetration was argued to be protective being utilized instrumentally for self or child protection (Babcock et al., 2003; Swan & Snow, 2003; Swan & Sullivan, 2009).”

“The age range captured in this study remained similar to those in previous research (Brooks et al., 2017; Cheung et al., 2009; Corbally, 2015; Drijber et al., 2013; Entilli & Cipolletta, 2017; Huntley et al., 2019; Tsui et al., 2010) male victims primarily over 40 and 2”

“Studies have consistently shown men being blamed more for their victimization than women (Lysova et al., 202 ; Sorenson & Taylor, 2005; Yamawaki et al., 2018).”

“Early research exploring male victimization and female perpetration, frequently constructed women’s violence within a self-defense narrative (Dobash & Dobash, 2004; Hamberger & Potente, 1994; Saunders, 2002).”

“This line of inquiry has also confirmed that men can be the victims and women the perpetrators of IPV (Archer, 2000; Breiding, 2014; Desmarais et al., 2012; Dutton et al., 2005).”

“Moreover, stigma is argued to exist within social interactions, it is a function of interaction as opposed to a feature resident within an individual (Hebl & Dovidio, 2005).”

“This fear of being discredited or devalued may be particularly relevant to IPV help-seeking narratives where revealing victimization, simultaneously reveals the stigma and may, if poorly managed lead to a victim feeling devalued (Chaudoir et al., 2013; Taylor, 2019).”

“These explanations posit that IPV perpetration may be better understood if the “problem” is constructed at a relationship/individual level rather than a structural one (Caetano et al., 2008; White & Chen, 2002).”

“…recent studies examining male victimization, help seeking, and professional service responses (Brooks et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2019; Hogan, 2020; Huntley et al., 2019; Lysova & Dim, 2020; Lysova et al., 202 ; Machado et al., 2017) we endorse the calls for the discrimination in the system to be…”

“These explanations posit that IPV perpetration may be better understood if the “problem” is constructed at a relationship/individual level rather than a structural one (Caetano et al., 2008; White & Chen, 2002).”

“For example, work in the United States and Canada (Dim, 2020; Hines & Douglas, 2010) and Europe (Bates, 2019; Bjørnholt, & Rosten, 2020; Drijber et al., 2013; McCarrick et al., 2016) has shown that men’s victimization experiences may include physical and psychological forms of abuse.”

“, 2007); symmetrical and asymmetrical (Mennicke & Kulkarni, 2016), bidirectional and unidirectional (Caetano et al., 2005; Renner & Whitney, 2012).”

“…men do not seek help for a variety of reasons including fear of losing their children (Bates, 2019; Brooks et al., 2017), shame and embarrassment (Tsui et al., 2010), a fear of not being taken seriously (Drijber et al., 2013), a protective or chivalrous attitude toward their partner (Entilli &…”

“The impact of the responses varied across and within participants, for some it was discussed in terms of decreasing mental health, suicidal ideation, and general worthlessness, findings consistent with previous research (Machado, et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2019).”

“Female perpetration was argued to be protective being utilized instrumentally for self or child protection (Babcock et al., 2003; Swan & Snow, 2003; Swan & Sullivan, 2009).”

“…that IPV can have powerful and enduring effects on victims, the status of “victim” is argued not to have been applied equally to NP18420 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(19-20)4 Jou nal f Interp rsonal Violence men and women (Lysova et al., 202 ; Seelau et al., 2003; Yamawaki et al., 2018).”

“Much of the research to date has come from help-seeking samples (Hines & Douglas, 2011; Morgan & Wells, 2016; Simmons et al., 2016).”

“The isolation the participants reported was not simply a function of the control used by the abuser to prevent help seeking, it was also a reflection of socio-political and -cultural systems that unintentionally enable isolation by excluding males from media campaigns, support services and policy (Machado et al., 2016…”

“…examining male victimization, help seeking, and professional service responses (Brooks et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2019; Hogan, 2020; Huntley et al., 2019; Lysova & Dim, 2020; Lysova et al., 202 ; Machado et al., 2017) we endorse the calls for the discrimination in the system to be acknowledged.”

“However, their socialization to never hit/hurt girls/women was a barrier to self-defense or help seeking, a fear that was intensified by threats of false allegations and the implications for their children (Hine et al., 2020; Walker et al., 2019).”

“Unsurprisingly, given the relative recency in research terms of the recognition of men’s victimization, there remains a paucity of research examining how male victims of IPV respond to and seek support for their victimization (Allen-Collinson, 2009; Dim, 2020).”

“Much of the research to date has come from help-seeking samples (Hines & Douglas, 2011; Morgan & Wells, 2016; Simmons et al., 2016).”

“A factor which is of particular concern given claims that IPV rates in female perpetration are increasingly common in younger women (Dutton et al., 2005).”

“…with their physical and mental health as a result of the abuse they had experienced, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; e.g., Hines & Douglas, 2011), anxiety and depression (Coker et al., 2002; Próspero, 2007; Próspero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007), and suicidality (McLaughlin et al., 2012).”

“As yet underexplored in the male victimization literature, findings do indicate that this model may be helpfully applied (Murray et al., 2018; Overstreet et al., 2017).”

“This strategy has already been shown to be successful for recruiting male victim samples in the UK (Bates, 2019) and in Australia (Walker et al., 2019).”

“…examining male victimization, help seeking, and professional service responses (Brooks et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2019; Hogan, 2020; Huntley et al., 2019; Lysova & Dim, 2020; Lysova et al., 202 ; Machado et al., 2017) we endorse the calls for the discrimination in the system to be acknowledged.”

“The age range captured in this study remained similar to those in previous research (Brooks et al., 2017; Cheung et al., 2009; Corbally, 2015; Drijber et al., 2013; Entilli & Cipolletta, 2017; Huntley et al., 2019; Tsui et al., 2010) male victims primarily over 40 and 2 NP18436 Journal of…”

“…assurance of confidentiality and anonymity to disclose their experiences (Mankind Initiative, 2020; Tsui et al., 2010) which means that the dominance of face to face data collection methods used to date may inadvertently exclude some potential participants (Cook, 2009; Nybergh et al., 2015).”

“, 2010), and a denial of their victim status (Cheung et al., 2009; Corbally, 2015).”

“There are powerful social and ethical arguments for training and education around victimization and the power and consequences of unconscious bias (Charman, 2020).”

“A factor that may make help seeking even more difficult (Perryman & Appleton, 2016).”

“This narrative promulgates the belief that men should be powerful and able to protect themselves (Corbally, 2015; Rentoul & Appleboom, 1997), and that they should be able to resolve their own issues and defend themselves and others against abuse (Bjørnholt & Rosten, 2020; Tsui et al., 2010).”

“Early work also suggested that the violence and abuse suffered by male victims of female perpetrated abuse was not comparable to that experienced by female victims (Flynn, 1990; James, 1996; Kelly & Johnson, 2008).”

“These models constructed IPV as an issue of men’s violence toward women, driven by a patriarchal imperative to control and dominate (Buzawa et al., 2017; Schwartz & DeKeseredy, 2008) in a narrative of power that privileges men and subjugates women.”

“…this study remained similar to those in previous research (Brooks et al., 2017; Cheung et al., 2009; Corbally, 2015; Drijber et al., 2013; Entilli & Cipolletta, 2017; Huntley et al., 2019; Tsui et al., 2010) male victims primarily over 40 and 2 NP18436 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(19-20)20…”

“This unintended consequence has the power to reinforce the undeserving male victim status and disenfranchise the victim by reducing their social capital (Park et al., 2020).”

“…with their physical and mental health as a result of the abuse they had experienced, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; e.g., Hines & Douglas, 2011), anxiety and depression (Coker et al., 2002; Próspero, 2007; Próspero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007), and suicidality (McLaughlin et al., 2012).”

“Much of the research to date has come from help-seeking samples (Hines & Douglas, 2011; Morgan & Wells, 2016; Simmons et al., 2016).”

“A message that also appears to have influenced both service availability and response style (Hine et al., 2020; Hogan et al., 2012; Huntley et al., 2019).”

“These suggestions echo those presented by Gold (2019) and Hine (2019).”

“Consistent with conclusions from recent studies examining male victimization, help seeking, and professional service responses (Brooks et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2019; Hogan, 2020; Huntley et al., 2019; Lysova & Dim, 2020; Lysova et al., 202 ; Machado et al., 2017) we endorse the calls for the…”

“…2019; Walker et al., 2019), indicating that the masculinity narrative is pervasive and influences both the individual in need of help (Brooks et al., 2017; Morgan & Wells, 2016) and those who are charged with responding (e.g. the police and social services; Lysova & Dim, 2020; Lysova et al., 202 ).”

“…accounts have adopted terminology to delineate the types of IPV observed within relationships, e.g., reciprocal and nonreciprocal (Whitaker et al., 2007); symmetrical and asymmetrical (Mennicke & Kulkarni, 2016), bidirectional and unidirectional (Caetano et al., 2005; Renner & Whitney, 2012).”

“Early work also suggested that the violence and abuse suffered by male victims of female perpetrated abuse was not comparable to that experienced by female victims (Flynn, 1990; James, 1996; Kelly & Johnson, 2008).”

“In the context of a masculinity narrative, the inferred synonymy between victim and weakness may be even more salient for male victims (Allen-Collinson, 2009; Corbally, 2015; Melton, & Sillito, 2012; Venäläinen, 2020).”

“As yet underexplored in the male victimization literature, findings do indicate that this model may be helpfully applied (Murray et al., 2018; Overstreet et al., 2017).”

“…that IPV can have powerful and enduring effects on victims, the status of “victim” is argued not to have been applied equally to NP18420 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(19-20)4 Jou nal f Interp rsonal Violence men and women (Lysova et al., 202 ; Seelau et al., 2003; Yamawaki et al., 2018).”

“One of the reasons identified for this was that the allegations made against them by their abusive partners did not appear to be rigorously challenged by professionals (Gold, 2019; Hine et al., 2020).”

“This fear of being discredited or devalued may be particularly relevant to IPV help-seeking narratives where revealing victimization, simultaneously reveals the stigma and may, if poorly managed lead to a victim feeling devalued (Chaudoir et al., 2013; Taylor, 2019).”

“This narrative promulgates the belief that men should be powerful and able to protect themselves (Corbally, 2015; Rentoul & Appleboom, 1997), and that they should be able to resolve their own issues and defend themselves and others against abuse (Bjørnholt & Rosten, 2020; Tsui et al., 2010).”

“social and community capital is in the process of recovery (Piga, 2018; Sullivan, 2018).”

“Of course, shame and stigma may also explain why men in Western cultures are less likely to report being victims of intimate partner violence (Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Participants said their friends and family would be shocked and surprised, and some reported expectations that family and friends would not believe them or would downplay the seriousness of the abuse (Taylor et al., 2022; Walker et al., 2020).”

“The attitudes collectively contribute to the trivialization of victimized men, thereby exacerbating their plight (Bates et al., 2019b; Gerber, 1991; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Dominant narratives on masculinity can do a disservice to those men who do not fit within it (see also Taylor et al., 2021) and the consequences of this can carry life-changing impacts in terms of mental health problems and risk of suicide (Scourfield and Evans, 2015).”

“The fear of being falsely labeled was also accompanied by the fear of counterclaims (e.g., claiming he was the abusive partner) from their abusive partner (J. C. Taylor et al., 2021).”

“Access to counselling and legal assistance is limited, compounding the trauma experienced (Taylor et al., 2022).”

“…reporting has been widely noted to be stigmatizing for both genders due to the hidden and visible components that it entails (N. M. Overstreet et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2021), the stigmatization, and fears of being stigmatized in patriarchal Nigeria appear to be more intense and far-reaching.”

“14,15 Lysova et al. 16 showed that male victims have four internal and two external barriers as reasons for being hesitant about help ‐ seeking behavior.”

“…usually perceives men as perpetrators of IPV rather than as victims which results in their reluctance to openly address their IPV experiences or even report them to the police as they fear discredi-tation and a loss of status (Hine, Wallace, et al., 2022; Lysova et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“It has resulted in male victims experiencing a series of internal struggles and systemic biases that are re fl ected in their help-seeking behaviors and experiences (Richardson & Kloess, 2022; Sivagurunathan et al., 2022; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Studies have found that women may choose not to report instances of IPV for several reasons, such as fear of embar-rassment and economic reliance on the abusive partner (Li et al., 2023; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Studies have shown that perpetrators in general — from either Western or non-Western backgrounds — rarely seek help to address their violent behavior (Corbally, 2015; Machado et al., 2017; Mugford, 1989; Taylor et al., 2022; Tsui et al., 2010).”

“This finding along with the reports of other types of abuse for men and women, suggests a need for service providers to assess for abuse among both men and women in the immigrant community (Taylor et al., 2021).”

“(Hine et al., 2022; Lysova et al., 2022; Machado et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“While there are more intersectional models emerging (Baker et al., 2013; McPhail et al., 2007), for men who are victims the predominant feminist theories of IPV begin to fall short (Letellier, 1994; Taylor et al., 2021).”

“…Mite Setiansah, & Wiwik Novianti ini menyatakan 13 % dari total 147 responden yang merupakan korban laki-laki tidak pernah menceritakan tentang pengalaman mereka, sedangkan 21 % responden lainnya baru menceritakan tentang kasus kekerasan setelah beberapa tahun setelahnya (Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Insgesamt wurden 147 Männer, die mit 85% vorwiegend aus dem Vereinigten Königreich stammten, zu ihrer Viktimisierung durch ihre Partnerin befragt (Taylor et al. 2021, S. 7).”

“Anonymity may also have reduced stigma and enabled men to disclose experiences more openly [57].”

“Despite such initiatives, men continue to underutilize social and health services such as mental health services, primary health care, and support for victims of intimate partner violence [5–8].”

“For example, males have been stereotypically referred to as the “stronger” sex, and in turn, being labeled a “victim” of dating violence may lead others to perceive them as “weak” (Taylor et al., 2021; Overstreet & Quinn, 2013).”

“…to acknowledge male victims of spousal abuse by organisations that tackle spousal abuse against women due to fears that it will take away the seriousness of the abuse experienced by women and also reduce funds and resources available to female victims (Hine et al., 2022; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“As a result, interventions for male victims are often integrated into those for female victims, rendering them less visible and accessible (Isangha, 2024c; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“While research and public discourse have focused on the experiences of female victims in heterosexual relationships (Bates & Carthy, 2020; Corbally, 2014), recent studies have highlighted the often-overlooked experiences of male victims (Isangha, 2024b, 2024c; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“…experiences of male IPV victims, moving beyond documenting types of violence or help-seeking experiences (Dim & Lysova, 2022; Drijber et al., 2013; Hines & Douglas, 2010, 2016; Hogan et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2024; Machado et al., 2016; Taylor et al., 2022; Vail et al., 2025; Walker et al., 2020).”

“It is well described that men who are victims of IPV do not commonly report this to authorities or the hospital (Carmo et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2021).”

“Our research is consistent with work suggesting that stigma influences disclosure and help-seeking (Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Disclosure, Barriers to Help-Seeking, and Support in Northern Ireland Men are more likely to either not report due to psychosocial and cultural influences, or to not recognise their experiences as IPV (Bates, 2020b; Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Society has a vested interest in taking men being the aggressor more seriously than women, and that is due to the likelihood of injury, hospitalization, or death being far greater for women [11].”

“This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY). as being treated as liars (Jovanoski & Sharlamanov, 2021; Taylor et al., 2021).”

“…of the studies focusing on the help-seeking of male victims have been carried out in developed countries (Hogan et al., 2021; Machado et al., 2016; Taylor et al., 2021; Tsui, 2014), and only a limited number in the developing world such as Sub-Saharan Africa (Gubi and Wandera, 2022; Kgatle and…”

“Furthermore, no men IPVA survivors were included but their experiences and opinions are important and could differ from women IPVA survivors (Taylor et al., 2022).”

“Similarly, men may face societal stigma and pressure to adhere to traditional masculine norms, which can inhibit their willingness to seek help from formal sources like doctors, psychologists, or the police (Douglas & Hines, 2011; Taylor et al., 2022; Tsui, 2014).”