Non-pharmacological treatment of depression: a systematic review and evidence map
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The comparative effectiveness of non-pharmacological treatments of depression remains unclear. METHODS: We conducted an overview of systematic reviews to identify randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that compared the efficacy and adverse effects of non-pharmacological treatments of depression. We searched multiple electronic databases through February 2016 without language restrictions. Pairs of reviewers determined eligibility, extracted data and assessed risk of bias. Meta-analyses were conducted when appropriate. RESULT: We included 367 RCTs enrolling ∼20 000 patients treated with 11 treatments leading to 17 unique head-to-head comparisons. Cognitive behavioural therapy, naturopathic therapy, biological interventions and physical activity interventions reduced depression severity as measured using standardised scales. However, the relative efficacy among these non-pharmacological interventions was lacking. The effect of these interventions on clinical response and remission was unclear. Adverse events were lower than antidepressants. LIMITATION: The quality of evidence was low to moderate due to inconsistency and unclear or high risk of bias, limiting our confidence in findings. CONCLUSIONS: Non-pharmacological therapies of depression reduce depression symptoms and should be considered along with antidepressant therapy for the treatment of mild-to-severe depression. A shared decision-making approach is needed to choose between non-pharmacological therapies based on values, preferences, clinical and social context.
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Physical activity/exercise, dietary modification, adequate sleep, social interaction, and mindfulness-based meditation have shown treatment efficacy in separate clinical trials of depression.
“These include physical activity/exercise, dietary modification, adequate sleep and social interaction, as well as mindfulness-based meditation, all of which have shown treatment efficacy in separate clinical trials of depression [4–16].”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
Lifestyle targeted behavioral interventions in depression have typically shown small-to-medium effect sizes of ~0.3-0.5, while the placebo effect of behavioral interventions is even smaller ~0.2 in RCTs.
“Lifestyle targeted behavioral interventions in depression have typically shown small-to-medium effect sizes of ~0.3–0.5 [4–16], while the placebo effect of behavioral interventions are even smaller ~0.2 in RCTs [101, 102].”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
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- Authors
- Farah, W. H., Alsawas, M., Mainou, M., Alahdab, F., Farah, M. H., Ahmed, A. T., Mohamed, E. A., Almasri, J., Gionfriddo, M. R., Castaneda-Guarderas, A., Mohammed, K., Wang, Z., Asi, N., Sawchuk, C. N., Williams, M. D., Prokop, L. J., Murad, M. H., & LeBlanc, A.
- Affiliations
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Corresponding author
- Murad, M Hassan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Evidence Based Medicine
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2016-11-11
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 214-221
- ISSN
- 1356-5524 (ISSN-L)
- 1473-6810
- OpenAlex
- W2557148745
- Semantic Scholar
- 9f83b5b860f1cf19d06fbfbed3243d58964c5f3a
- Cited by
- 141
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4
- FWCI
- 0.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depression, non-pharmacological treatment, cognitive behavioral therapy, naturopathy, biological interventions, physical activity interventions, comparative effectiveness, adverse events, antidepressants, depression severity, remission, shared decision-making
- MeSH terms
- Antidepressive Agents, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Humans, Psychotherapy, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
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