Reporting bias in medical research - a narrative review
Open accessAbstract
Reporting bias represents a major problem in the assessment of health care interventions. Several prominent cases have been described in the literature, for example, in the reporting of trials of antidepressants, Class I anti-arrhythmic drugs, and selective COX-2 inhibitors. The aim of this narrative review is to gain an overview of reporting bias in the medical literature, focussing on publication bias and selective outcome reporting. We explore whether these types of bias have been shown in areas beyond the well-known cases noted above, in order to gain an impression of how widespread the problem is. For this purpose, we screened relevant articles on reporting bias that had previously been obtained by the German Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care in the context of its health technology assessment reports and other research work, together with the reference lists of these articles.We identified reporting bias in 40 indications comprising around 50 different pharmacological, surgical (e.g. vacuum-assisted closure therapy), diagnostic (e.g. ultrasound), and preventive (e.g. cancer vaccines) interventions. Regarding pharmacological interventions, cases of reporting bias were, for example, identified in the treatment of the following conditions: depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, anxiety disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Alzheimer's disease, pain, migraine, cardiovascular disease, gastric ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, urinary incontinence, atopic dermatitis, diabetes mellitus type 2, hypercholesterolaemia, thyroid disorders, menopausal symptoms, various types of cancer (e.g. ovarian cancer and melanoma), various types of infections (e.g. HIV, influenza and Hepatitis B), and acute trauma. Many cases involved the withholding of study data by manufacturers and regulatory agencies or the active attempt by manufacturers to suppress publication. The ascertained effects of reporting bias included the overestimation of efficacy and the underestimation of safety risks of interventions.In conclusion, reporting bias is a widespread phenomenon in the medical literature. Mandatory prospective registration of trials and public access to study data via results databases need to be introduced on a worldwide scale. This will allow for an independent review of research data, help fulfil ethical obligations towards patients, and ensure a basis for fully-informed decision making in the health care system.
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The medical literature represents a biased subset of existing data, potentially leading to overestimation of benefits, underestimation of harms, and detrimental impact on patient care and research.
“Overall, the medical literature represents a biased subset of existing data, potentially leading to overestimation of benefits, underestimation of harms, and a detrimental impact on patient care and research.112 117 118”
From SPIRIT 2025 explanation and elaboration: updated guideline for protocols of randomised trials (2025) · cites this paper as [117]
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Sources of error in the retracted scientific literature
Casadevall, A., Steen, R. G., & Fang, F. C. (2014) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.14-256735 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Junqueira, D. R., Zorzela, L., Golder, S., Loke, Y., Gagnier, J. J., Julious, S. A., Li, T., Mayo-Wilson, E., Pham, B., Phillips, R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.04.005 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Park, H. Y., Suh, C. H., Woo, S., Kim, P. H., & Kim, K. W. (2022) · Korean Journal of Radiology · doi:10.3348/kjr.2021.0808 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Hodkinson, A., Dietz, K. C., Lefebvre, C., Golder, S., Jones, M., Doshi, P., Heneghan, C., Jefferson, T., Boutron, I., & Stewart, L. (2018) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-018-0766-x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Norris, S. L., Moher, D., Reeves, B. C., Shea, B., Loke, Y., Garner, S., Anderson, L., Tugwell, P., & Wells, G. (2013) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.1062 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Cornelius, V. R., Sauzet, O., Williams, J. E., Ayis, S., Farquhar-Smith, P., Ross, J. R., Branford, R. A., & Peacock, J. L. (2013) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2012.08.012 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Zou, C. X., Becker, J. E., Phillips, A. T., Garritano, J. M., Krumholz, H. M., Miller, J. E., & Ross, J. S. (2018) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-2957-0 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Treanor, L., Frank, R. A., Cherpak, L. A., Dehmoobad Sharifabadi, A., Salameh, J.-P., Hallgrimson, Z., Fabiano, N., McGrath, T. A., Kraaijpoel, N., Yao, J., et al. (2020) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-019-06568-z · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Østengaard, L., Lundh, A., Tjørnhøj-Thomsen, T., Abdi, S., Gelle, M. H. A., Stewart, L. A., Boutron, I., & Hróbjartsson, A. (2020) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.m3764 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
de Vries, Y. A., Roest, A. M., Turner, E. H., & de Jonge, P. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718002805 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Potthast, R., Vervölgyi, V., McGauran, N., Kerekes, M. F., Wieseler, B., & Kaiser, T. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092067 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationOnline and mobile customer behaviour: a critical evaluation of Grounded Theory studies
Valvi, A. C., Frangos, C. C., & Frangos, C. C. (2013) · Behaviour & Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2013.789082 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Gill, B., Wessels, J. M., Hayes, C. L., Ratcliffe, J., Wokuri, J., Ball, E., Reid, G., Kaul, R., Rana, J., Alkhaifi, M., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0315576 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Clinical trial transparency regulations: Implications to various scholarly publishing stakeholders
Abdul Razack, H. I., Aranjani, J. M., & Mathew, S. T. (2022) · Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1093/scipol/scac041 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- McGauran, N., Wieseler, B., Kreis, J., Schüler, Y.-B., Kölsch, H., & Kaiser, T.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (DE)
- Corresponding author
- McGauran, Natalie
- Venue
- Trials
- Published
- 2010-04-13
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 37-37
- ISSN
- 1745-6215 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2867979
- OpenAlex
- W2130998313
- Cited by
- 452
- References
- 223
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 9.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trials (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmaceutical industry and healthcare
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Keywords
- reporting bias, publication bias, selective outcome reporting
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Consumer Product Safety, Humans, Periodicals as Topic, Registries, Truth Disclosure, Reproducibility of Results, Treatment Outcome, Publication Bias, Evidence-Based Medicine, Databases as Topic, Access to Information, Biomedical Research
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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