Intention to treat analysis in clinical trials when there are missing data

Streiner, David; Geddes, John

doi:10.1136/ebmh.4.3.70

Cited by 148Statistical Methods in Clinical TrialsStatistical Methods and Bayesian InferenceMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

Intention to treat analysis in clinical trials when there are missing data

Open access

Streiner, David, Geddes, John·2001·Evidence Based Mental Health

DOI 10.1136/ebmh.4.3.70

Open this paper in CoChat — free account Open PDF

Abstract

Intention to treat analysis in clinical trials when there are missing data

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1136/ebmh.4.3.70

Cites

3 of 3 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

An intention-to-treat approach was used with imputation of missing data by last value carried forward.
“An intention-to-treat approach was used with imputation of missing data by last value carried forward (Streiner & Geddes, 2001).”
From Brief group‐based acceptance and commitment therapy for stroke survivors. (2019) · cites this paper as Streiner & Geddes, 2001

Biostatistics : The Bare Essentials
Norman, G. R., & Streiner, D. L. (1993) · Cited by 1,498 · see citing works
Self-citation
Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: systematic overview and meta-regression analysis
Geddes, J. R., Freemantle, N., Harrison, P. J., & Bebbington, P. (2000) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7273.1371 · Cited by 1,060 · see citing works
Self-citation
Sample Size and Power in Psychiatric Research *
Streiner, D. L. (1990) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674379003500712 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Intention-to-treat concept: A review
Gupta, S. (2011) · Perspectives in Clinical Research · doi:10.4103/2229-3485.83221 · Cited by 1,921 · see citing works
“[9] However, in most cases, missing data could also be dealt by using the last observation carried forward (LOCF) method, whereby the last available measurement for each individual at the time point prior to withdrawal from the study is retained in the analysis.[20,21]”
Method
Precision Microbiome Modulation with Discrete Dietary Fiber Structures Directs Short-Chain Fatty Acid Production
Deehan, E. C., Yang, C., Pérez-Muñoz, M. E., Nguyen, N. K., Cheng, C. C., Triador, L., Zhang, Z., Bakal, J. A., & Walter, J. (2020) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.01.006 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Geriatric Care Management for Low-Income Seniors
Counsell, S. R., Callahan, C. M., Clark, D. O., Tu, W., Buttar, A. B., Stump, T. E., & Ricketts, G. D. (2007) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.298.22.2623 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
“Initial team conference, mean (range), d 25 (4-162)”
BackgroundMethod
Intention to treat analysis, compliance, drop-outs and how to deal with missing data in clinical research: a review
Armijo-Olivo, S., Warren, S., & Magee, D. (2009) · Physical Therapy Reviews · doi:10.1179/174328809x405928 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Behavioural activation delivered by the non-specialist: phase II randomised controlled trial
Ekers, D., Richards, D., McMillan, D., Bland, J. M., & Gilbody, S. (2011) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.079111 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Effect of Tai Chi on Physical Function, Fall Rates and Quality of Life Among Older Stroke Survivors
Taylor‐Piliae, R. E., Hoke, T. M., Hepworth, J. T., Latt, L. D., Najafi, B., & Coull, B. M. (2014) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2014.01.001 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Effects of Tai Chi and Western Exercise on Physical and Cognitive Functioning in Healthy Community-Dwelling Older Adults
Taylor‐Piliae, R. E., Newell, K., Cherin, R., Lee, M. J., King, A. C., & Haskell, W. L. (2010) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.18.3.261 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
“Missing data were replaced using the last observation carried forward (Nich & Carroll, 2002; Streiner & Geddes, 2001).”
Method
The social treatment: The benefits of group interventions in residential care settings.
Haslam, C., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Bevins, A., Ravenscroft, S., & Tonks, J. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0018256 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“To deal with the missing data in the latter group, we opted for the “worst case scenario” option recommended by Streiner and Geddes (2001). Given that none of the interventions were deemed in any way harmful, we reasoned that the worst case should be no change in performance as a result of any intervention.”
Method
Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in SSRI treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Veale, D., Miles, S., Smallcombe, N., Ghezai, H., Goldacre, B., & Hodsoll, J. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-014-0317-5 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“However LOCF carries a risk of bias and variance of treatment effect will be underestimated as natural variation in measurement is factored out [32].”
Background
Communication and Low Mood (CALM): a randomized controlled trial of behavioural therapy for stroke patients with aphasia
Thomas, S. A., Walker, M. F., Macniven, J. A., Haworth, H., & Lincoln, N. B. (2013) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/0269215512462227 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: A randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients
Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., & Klinger, R. (2010) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.12.015 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“We therefore conducted intention-to-treat analyses [46] using the LOCF (Last Observation Carried Forward) method.”
Method
Care Management of Poststroke Depression
Williams, L. S., Kroenke, K., Bakas, T., Plue, L. D., Brizendine, E. J., Tu, W., & Hendrie, H. C. (2007) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/01.str.0000257319.14023.61 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Using WhatsApp and Facebook Online Social Groups for Smoking Relapse Prevention for Recent Quitters: A Pilot Pragmatic Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial
Cheung, Y. T. D., Chan, C. H. H., Lai, C.-K. J., Chan, W. F. V., Wang, M. P., Li, H. C. W., Chan, S. S. C., & Lam, T. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4829 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“By intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis [31], participants who were lost or refused to follow up were treated as having smoking relapse and lapse.”
The effectiveness of computerized cognitive behavioural therapy in routine care
Cavanagh, K., Shapiro, D. A., Van den Berg, S., Swain, S., Barkham, M., & Proudfoot, J. (2006) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466505x84782 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Randomized controlled trial of a parenting program to reduce the risk of child maltreatment in South Africa
Lachman, J. M., Cluver, L. D., Ward, C. L., Hutchings, J., Mlotshwa, S. C., Wessels, I. M., & Gardner, F. E. M. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.08.014 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Brief group‐based acceptance and commitment therapy for stroke survivors.
Majumdar, S., & Morris, R. (2019) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12198 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“An intention-to-treat approachwas usedwith imputation ofmissing data by last value carried forward (Streiner & Geddes, 2001).”
Method
A national evaluation of parenting programs in Sweden: The short-term effects using an RCT effectiveness design.
Stattin, H., Enebrink, P., Özdemir, M., & Giannotta, F. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039328 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The South Australia Health Chronic Disease Self-Management Internet Trial
Lorig, K. R., Ritter, P. L., Plant, K., Laurent, D. D., Kelly, P., & Rowe, S. (2012) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198112436969 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“When the same analyses were repeated using intent-to-treat methodology as described above (Streiner & Geddes, 2001), the results were virtually identical.”
Method
Effectiveness of the Chronic Disease Self-Management Program for Persons with a Serious Mental Illness: A Translation Study
Lorig, K. R., Ritter, P. L., Pifer, C., & Werner, P. (2013) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9615-5 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The UK Resilience Programme: A school-based universal nonrandomized pragmatic controlled trial.
Challen, A., Machin, S. J., & Gillham, J. E. (2013) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034854 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Evidence-Based Medicine: An Introduction for Psychiatrists
Gray, G. E. (2002) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/00131746-200201000-00002 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Effects of oral treatments on exercise capacity in systemic sclerosis related pulmonary arterial hypertension: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials
Avouac, J., Wipff, J., Kahan, A., & Allanore, Y. (2007) · Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases · doi:10.1136/ard.2007.077149 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Telephone-Delivered, Interpersonal Psychotherapy for HIV-Infected Rural Persons With Depression: A Pilot Trial
Ransom, D., Heckman, T. G., Anderson, T., Garske, J. P., Holroyd, K., & Basta, T. B. (2008) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.2008.59.8.871 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Participants with missing postintervention data (N=13) were retained for final outcome analyses by using a last-observation-carried-forward approach, a method commonly used in clinical trials to provide a conservative estimate of outcomes had participants remained in treatment but evidenced no change (23).”
Method
A 10% Increase in Step Rate Improves Running Kinematics and Clinical Outcomes in Runners With Patellofemoral Pain at 4 Weeks and 3 Months
Bramah, C., Preece, S. J., Gill, N., & Herrington, L. C. (2019) · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1177/0363546519879693 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The role of computer‐aided psychotherapy within an NHS CBT specialist service
Learmonth, D., Trosh, J., Rai, S., Sewell, J., & Cavanagh, K. (2008) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/14733140801976290 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Although this method can guide practitioners as to the probable clinical impact for BtB service users, it does have a number of shortcomings (Streiner & Geddes, 2001 ).”
Method
Can a Brief Antepartum Preventive Group Intervention Help Reduce Postpartum Depressive Symptomatology?
Kozinszky, Z., Dudas, R. B., Devosa, I., Csatordai, S., Tóth, É., Szabó, D., Sikovanyecz, J., Barabás, K. N., & Pál, A. (2012) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000330035 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Randomised-controlled trial of a web-based dietary intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes: changes in health cognitions and glycemic control
Ramadas, A., Chan, C. K. Y., Oldenburg, B., Hussein, Z., & Quek, K. F. (2018) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5640-1 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“tion Carried Forward (LOCF) principles [35].”
Impact of a Home-Based Physical and Nutritional Intervention Program Conducted by Lay-Volunteers on Handgrip Strength in Prefrail and Frail Older Adults: A Randomized Control Trial
Haider, S., Dorner, T. E., Winzer, E., Kapan, A., Titze, S., Lackinger, C., & Schindler, K. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169613 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Does journal club membership improve research evidence uptake in different allied health disciplines: a pre-post study
Lizarondo, L. M., Grimmer, K. A., Kumar, S., & Crockett, A. J. (2012) · BMC Research Notes · doi:10.1186/1756-0500-5-588 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“last observation) was carried forward as their post intervention measurement [38].”
Background
Mindfulness interventions for psychosis: a systematic review of the literature
Aust, J., & Bradshaw, T. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12357 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“In accordance with the recommendations of Streiner & Geddes (2001), two trials used intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis exclusively (Chien & Thompson 2014, 74 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Lopez-Navarro et al. 2015), whilst three trials reported both ITT and completer-only results.”
Method
Evidence-Based Medicine
Gray, G. E., & Gray, L. (2002) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(02)90279-8 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of probiotics in systemic sclerosis associated gastrointestinal disease
Low, A. H. L., Teng, G. G., Pettersson, S., de Sessions, P. F., Ho, E. X. P., Fan, Q., Chu, C. W., Law, A. H. N., Santosa, A., Lim, A. Y. N., et al. (2019) · Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism · doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2019.05.006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Efficacy of Early Physical Therapy in Severe Bell’s Palsy
Nicastri, M., Mancini, P., Seta, D. D., Bertoli, G. A., Prosperini, L., Toni, D., Inghilleri, M., & Filipo, R. (2013) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/1545968313481280 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Analyses were carried-out according to the intention-totreat (ITT) principle.(47,48) All randomized patients were analyzed for primary and secondary outcomes, regardless of whether they dropped out of the study.”
Method
Sustained effect of resistance training on blood pressure and hand grip strength following a detraining period in elderly hypertensive women: a pilot study
Nascimento, D. D. C., Tibana, R. A., Benik, F. M., Fontana, K. E., Neto, F. R., de Santana, F. S., Neto, L. S., Silva, R. A. S., Silva, A. D. O., de Farias, D. L., et al. (2014) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s56058 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Multiple medically unexplained physical symptoms and health care utilization: Outcome of psychological intervention and patient-related predictors of change
Kolk, A., Schagen, S., & Hanewald, G. (2004) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(04)00036-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“It is considered an improvement over eliminating subjects from the analysis [48].”
Background
Better Care for Older People With Chronic Diseases
Reuben, D. B. (2007) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.298.22.2673 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The implementation of computerized cognitive behavioural therapies in a service user-led, third sector self help clinic
Cavanagh, K., Seccombe, N., & Lidbetter, N. (2011) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465810000858 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This is generally considered to be a relatively conservative approach to dealing with missing data (that is, it underestimates clinical outcomes), but does not tell us what “really happened to the patient” (p. 70, Streiner and Geddes, 2001).”
Background
Supportive-Expressive and Coping Group Teletherapies for HIV-Infected Older Adults: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Heckman, T. G., Heckman, B. D., Anderson, T., Lovejoy, T. I., Mohr, D. C., Sutton, M., Bianco, J. A., & Gau, J. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0441-0 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“For missing data, a last-observation-carried-forward data imputation strategy was used [43].”
Method
A brief cognitive therapy intervention for internalised stigma in acute inpatients who experience psychosis: a feasibility randomised controlled trial
Wood, L., Byrne, R., Enache, G., & Morrison, A. P. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.030 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Arts Therapies Interventions on Measures of Quality of Life and Wellbeing: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study in Primary Schools
Moula, Z., Powell, J., & Karkou, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586134 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Behavioral activation versus physical activity via the internet: A randomized controlled trial
Nyström, M. B. T., Stenling, A., Sjöström, E., Neely, G., Lindner, P., Hassmén, P., Andersson, G., Martell, C. R., & Carlbring, P. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.018 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Integrating culturally informed approaches into physiotherapy assessment and treatment of chronic pain: a pilot randomised controlled trial
Brady, B., Veljanova, I., Schabrun, S. M., & Chipchase, L. S. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021999 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Intention-to treat analyses were performed for all participants and missing data were addressed by carrying the last data point forward.(41) Analyses were performed using the SPSS, V.”
Method
A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Truck Seat Intervention: Part 2—Associations Between Whole-Body Vibration Exposures and Health Outcomes
Kim, J. H., Suchsland, M. Z., Dennerlein, J. T., & Johnson, P. W. (2018) · Annals of Work Exposures and Health · doi:10.1093/annweh/wxy063 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“If a subject dropped out of the study during the 1-year study period, we used the last observation carried forward method (Streiner and Geddes, 2001), meaning that the last available data prior to drop out will be included in the data analysis.”
Method
The Impact of Group Emotion Regulation Interventions on Emotion Regulation Ability: A Systematic Review
Moore, R., Gillanders, D. T., & Stuart, S. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11092519 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Where data are missing, this is normally managed in ITT by using impu‐ tation methods, usually by carrying forward the last observed response [75,76].”
Method
One-Hour Training for General Practitioners in Reducing the Implementation Gap of Smoking Cessation Care: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial
Verbiest, M. E. A., Crone, M. R., Scharloo, M., Chavannes, N. H., van der Meer, V., Kaptein, A. A., & Assendelft, W. J. (2013) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntt100 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Comparative Effects of Spinal and Peripheral Thrust Manipulation and Exercise on Pain Sensitivity and the Relation to Clinical Outcome: A Mechanistic Trial Using a Shoulder Pain Model
Coronado, R. A., Bialosky, J. E., Bishop, M. D., Riley, J. L., Robinson, M. E., Michener, L. A., & George, S. Z. (2015) · Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy · doi:10.2519/jospt.2015.5745 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Evaluation of brief interventions for managing depression and anxiety symptoms during early discharge period after stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial
Hoffmann, T., Ownsworth, T., Eames, S., & Shum, D. (2015) · Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation · doi:10.1179/1074935714z.0000000030 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Effectiveness of a Stand-Alone, Smartphone-Based Virtual Reality Exposure App to Reduce Fear of Heights in Real-Life: A Randomized Trial
Bentz, D., Wang, N., Ibach, M. K., Schicktanz, N. S., Zimmer, A., Papassotiropoulos, A., & de Quervain, D. J. F. (2021) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-021-00387-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Effect of choir activity in the rehabilitation of aphasia: a blind, randomised, controlled pilot study
Zumbansen, A., Peretz, I., Anglade, C., Bilodeau, J., Généreux, S., Hubert, M., & Hébert, S. (2016) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2016.1227424 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Outcomes After a Prone Lumbar Traction Protocol for Patients With Activity-Limiting Low Back Pain: A Prospective Case Series Study
Beattie, P., Nelson, R. M., Michener, L. A., Cammarata, J., & Donley, J. W. (2008) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2007.06.778 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Trunk Exercises Improve Gait Symmetry in Parkinson Disease
Hubble, R. P., Naughton, G. A., Silburn, P. A., & Cole, M. H. (2017) · American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/phm.0000000000000858 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Furthermore, when participants who completed the 12-wk intervention were unable to return for follow-up testing, their data were imputed using the last observation carried forward method.(28) Linear mixed model analyses were conducted to determine whether the trunk-specific exercise program was more effective than the…”
Method
Bone strength and density via pQCT in post-menopausal osteopenic women after 9 months resistive exercise with whole body vibration or proprioceptive exercise.
Stolzenberg, N., Belavý, D. L., Beller, G., Armbrecht, G., Semler, J., & Felsenberg, D. (2013) · PubMed · Cited by 32 · see citing works
One‐year follow‐up comparing at‐home bleaching systems outcomes and the impact on patient's satisfaction: Randomized clinical trial
Mailart, M. C., Sakassegawa, P. A., dos Santos, K. C., Torres, C. R. G., Palo, R. M., & Borges, A. B. (2021) · Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry · doi:10.1111/jerd.12814 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Efficacy and Safety of Sodium Hyaluronate/chondroitin Sulfate Preservative-free Ophthalmic Solution in the Treatment of Dry Eye: A Clinical Trial
Belalcázar-Rey, S., Sánchez-Huerta, V., Ochoa-Tabares, J. C., Vallejo, S. A., Soto-Gómez, A., Suárez-Velasco, R., García-Félix., F., Baiza-Durán, L. M., Olvera‐Montaño, O., & Muñoz‐Villegas, P. (2020) · Current Eye Research · doi:10.1080/02713683.2020.1849733 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Two manual therapy techniques for management of lumbar radiculopathy: a randomized clinical trial
Danazumi, M. S., Bello, B., Yakasai, A. M., & Kaka, B. (2021) · Journal of Osteopathic Medicine · doi:10.1515/jom-2020-0261 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The development and evaluation of a complex health education intervention for adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia
Bradshaw, T., Lovell, K., Bee, P., & Campbell, M. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2009.01543.x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The safety and feasibility of a Halliwick style of aquatic physiotherapy for falls and balance dysfunction in people with Parkinson's Disease: A single blind pilot trial
Terrens, A. F., Soh, S., & Morgan, P. E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236391 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Any missing data from participants who were randomised to the intervention were analysed using intention to treat analysis by using the last data point captured [39].”
Method
Telephone-Administered Motivational Interviewing to Reduce Risky Sexual Behavior in HIV-Infected Rural Persons: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial
Cosio, D., Heckman, T. G., Anderson, T., Heckman, B. D., Garske, J. P., & McCarthy, J. (2010) · Sexually Transmitted Diseases · doi:10.1097/olq.0b013e3181c18975 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Outpatient Combined Group and Individual Cognitive–Behavioral Treatment for Patients With Migraine and Tension‐Type Headache in a Routine Clinical Setting
Christiansen, S., Jürgens, T. P., & Klinger, R. (2015) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.12626 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“To substitute missing data, we used the Last Observation Carried Forward method.(38) In an initial analysis with a subsample, we did not find significant differences between tension-type headache and migraine patients (Witte H, unpublished data).”
Method
Role of Active Versus Passive Complementary and Integrative Health Approaches in Pain Management
Cosio, D., & Lin, E. H. (2018) · Global Advances in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1177/2164956118768492 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“A last-observation-carried-backward approach 26 was used for missing data on the pre-education assessment, and a last-observation-carried-forward approach 27 was used for missing data on the posteducation assessment.”
The influence of a liner on deep bulk-fill restorations: Randomized clinical trial
Torres, C. R. G., Mailart, M. C., Rocha, R. S., Sellán, P. L. B., Contreras, S. C. M., Nicoló, R. D., & Borges, A. B. (2020) · Journal of Dentistry · doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2020.103454 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Study protocol for a non-inferiority randomised controlled trial of SKY breathing meditation versus cognitive processing therapy for PTSD among veterans
Mathersul, D. C., Tang, J. S., Schulz‐Heik, R. J., Avery, T. J., Seppala, E. M., & Bayley, P. J. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027150 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A comparison of the utility of different step-indices to translate the physical activity recommendation in adolescents
Mayorga-Vega, D., Casado-Robles, C., Fernández, I. L., & Viciana, J. (2020) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2020.1826667 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Prehabilitation sessions can be provided more frequently in a shortened regimen with similar or better efficacy in people with non-small cell lung cancer: a randomised trial
Gravier, F., Smondack, P., Boujibar, F., Prieur, G., Médrinal, C., Combret, Y., Muir, J., Baste, J. M., Cuvelier, A., Debeaumont, D., et al. (2021) · Journal of physiotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.jphys.2021.12.010 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Randomised clinical non-inferiority trial of breathing-based meditation and cognitive processing therapy for symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans
Bayley, P., Schulz-Heik, R. J., Tang, J. S., Mathersul, D., Avery, T., Wong, M., Zeitzer, J., Rosen, C., Burn, A. S., Hernandez, B., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056609 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
A multisite, randomized field trial to evaluate the influence of lactoferrin on the morbidity and mortality of dairy calves with diarrhea
Pempek, J. A., Watkins, L. R., Bruner, C. E., & Habing, G. G. (2019) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2019-16476 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“To limit potential biases associated with exclusions, we used an intention-to-treat analysis, one of the most clinically informative and statistically robust methods of analysis for randomized clinical trials with missing data (Streiner and Geddes, 2001).”
Long-Term Effect of Pulsed Nd-YAG Laser Combined with Exercise on Bone Mineral Density in Men with Osteopenia or Osteoporosis: 1 Year of Follow-Up
Alayat, M. S. M., El-Kafy, E. M. A., Thabet, A., Abdel-Malek, A. S., Ali, T., & Header, E. A. (2017) · Photomedicine and Laser Surgery · doi:10.1089/pho.2017.4328 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Computer‐aided design and computer‐aided manufacturing indirect versus direct composite restorations: A randomized clinical trial
Torres, C. R. G., Andrade, A. C. M., Mafetano, A. P. V. P., de Abreu, F. S., Andrade, D. D. S., Mailart, M. C., de Souza, M. L. A. D. B. L. R. C., Alarça, L. G., de Araújo, C. A. R., Nicoló, R. D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry · doi:10.1111/jerd.12820 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Reduced Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Young Men of Color Who Have Sex with Men: Findings from the Community-Based Organization Behavioral Outcomes of Many Men, Many Voices (CBOP-3MV) Project
Stein, R., Shapatava, E., Williams, W. O., Griffin, T., Bell, K., Lyons, B. H., & Uhl, G. A. (2015) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-015-0565-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“To assess the potential impact of losses to follow-up, sensitivity analyses for the unadjusted models were conducted in which missing outcome data were imputed using the last observation carried forward (LOCF; Streiner and Geddes 2001).”
Method
Effectiveness and Safety of Manufactured Chinese Herbal Formula for Knee Osteoarthritis: Insights from a Systematic Review
Zhu, L., Yang, S., Wang, S.-Q., Gong, H., Li, L., & Xu, W. (2015) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2015/328642 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Intention-to-treat datawas extracted from the primary articles [56, 57].”
Method
Taking computerized CBT beyond primary care.
Learmonth, D., & Rai, S. (2008) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466507x248599 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Effectiveness of alitretinoin in severe chronic hand eczema: PASSION, a real-world observational study
Thaçi, D., Augustin, M., Westermayer, B., Kamps, A., & Hennig, M. (2016) · Journal of Dermatological Treatment · doi:10.1080/09546634.2016.1227422 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The LOCF method has several limitations which have been described elsewhere (29).”
Method
Prevention of child mental health problems in Southeastern Europe: a multicentre sequential study to adapt, optimise and test the parenting programme ‘Parenting for Lifelong Health for Young Children’, protocol for stage 1, the feasibility study
Frantz, I., Foran, H. M., Lachman, J. M., Jansen, E., Hutchings, J., Băban, A., Fang, X., Gardner, F. E. M., Lesco, G., Raleva, M., et al. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026684 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Generating Evidence to Inform Policy and Practice: The Example of the Second Generation "Atypical" Antipsychotics
Geddes, J. R. (2003) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006980 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Methods of imputation such as last observation carried forward (LOCF) allow intention-to-treat analyses in the presence of missing data, but the validity of the quantitative result is compromised (Streiner and Geddes 2001).”
MethodSelf-citation
Efficacy and safety of deferasirox estimated by serum ferritin and labile plasma iron levels in patients with aplastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, or acute myeloid leukemia with transfusional iron overload
Kim, I. H., Moon, J. H., Lim, S.-N., Sohn, S., Kim, H., Lee, G., Kim, Y., Lee, H. S., Kwon, K., Kim, S., et al. (2015) · Transfusion · doi:10.1111/trf.13036 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Age (years), median (range) 55 (17-79) 53 (17-79) 59 (20-75) 51 (18-75) Gender, n (%) Male 62 (62.”
Valores anômalos e dados faltantes em estudos clínicos e experimentais
Miot, H. A. (2019) · Jornal Vascular Brasileiro · doi:10.1590/1677-5449.190004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Combining supervised run interval training or moderate-intensity continuous training with the diabetes prevention program on clinical outcomes
Gilbertson, N. M., Mandelson, J. A., Hilovsky, K. L., Akers, J. D., Hargens, T. A., Wenos, D. L., & Edwards, E. S. (2019) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-019-04137-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Effect of intensive weekend mindfulness-based intervention on BDNF, mitochondria function, and anxiety. A randomized, crossover clinical trial
Gomutbutra, P., Srikamjak, T., Sapinun, L., Kunaphanh, S., Yingchankul, N., Apaijai, N., Shinlapawittayatorn, K., Phuackchantuck, R., Chattipakorn, N., & Chattipakorn, S. C. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2022.100137 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Effects of a Pain Education Program for Veterans with Chronic, Noncancer Pain: A Pilot Study
Cosio, D., & Lin, E. H. (2013) · Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.3109/15360288.2013.846953 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Sources and handling of losses to follow-up in parallel-group randomized clinical trials in dogs and cats: 63 trials (2000–2005)
Brown, D. C. (2007) · American Journal of Veterinary Research · doi:10.2460/ajvr.68.7.694 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
A Randomized Comparative Trial of Targeted Steroid Injection via Epidural Catheter vs Standard Transforaminal Epidural Injection for the Treatment of Unilateral Cervical Radicular Pain: Six-Month Results
McCormick, Z. L., Conger, A., Sperry, B. P., Teramoto, M., Petersen, R., Salazar, F., Cunningham, S., Henrie, A. M., Bisson, E. F., & Kendall, R. W. (2020) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnaa242 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ist primäre Prävention von Essstörungen langfristig wirksam?
Dannigkeit, N., Köster, G., & Tuschen‐Caffier, B. (2005) · Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie · doi:10.1026/0943-8149.13.2.79 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
A preliminary trial examining a ‘real world’ approach for increasing physical activity among breast cancer survivors: findings from project MOVE
Caperchione, C. M., Sabiston, C. M., Stolp, S., Bottorff, J. L., Campbell, K. L., Eves, N. D., Ellard, S. L., Gotay, C. C., Sharp, P., Pullen, T., et al. (2019) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-019-5470-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Third, the use of “last observation carried forward” has limitations [68], however the majority of participants with missing data had only one time point of data collected, making growth curve analysis inappropriate.”
Background
The Moderating Role of Sexual Identity in Group Teletherapy for Adults Aging with HIV
Heckman, B. D., Lovejoy, T. I., Heckman, T. G., Anderson, T., Grimes, T., Sutton, M., & Bianco, J. A. (2014) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2014.925417 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Effects of Atomoxetine in Individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Low-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder
Kılınçaslan, A., Mutluer, T., Pasabeyoglu, B., Tutkunkardaş, M. D., & Mukaddes, N. M. (2016) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2015.0179 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This analysis has advantages like minimizing the number of subjects eliminated from the analysis and examining trends over time, rather than focusing simply on the endpoint (Streiner and Geddes 2001).”
Effects of a pain education program in Complementary and Alternative Medicine treatment utilization at a VA medical center
Cosio, D., & Lin, E. H. (2015) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2015.04.005 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
One-year results from a randomized comparative trial of targeted steroid injection via epidural catheter versus standard transforaminal epidural injection for the treatment of unilateral cervical radicular pain
Conger, A., Kendall, R. W., Sperry, B. P., Petersen, R., Salazar, F., Cunningham, S., Henrie, A. M., Bisson, E. F., Teramoto, M., & McCormick, Z. L. (2021) · Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine · doi:10.1136/rapm-2021-102514 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
How have research questions and methods used in clinical trials published in Clinical Rehabilitation changed over the last 30 years?
Mayo, N. E., Kaur, N., Barbic, S. P., Fiore, J. F., Barclay, R., Finch, L. E., Kuspinar, A., Asano, M., Figueiredo, S. M., Aburub, A. S., et al. (2016) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/0269215516658939 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Effects of the combination of pulsed electromagnetic field with progressive resistance exercise on knee osteoarthritis: A randomized controlled trial
Yabroudi, M. A., Aldardour, A. M., Nawasreh, Z. H., Obaidat, S. M., Altubasi, I. M., & Bashaireh, K. M. (2023) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/bmr-220261 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Intention to treat analysis was used for patients who lost to follow-up (2 patients) using the last observation carried forward (LOCF) method [49,50].”
Low level laser for the stimulation of acupoints for smoking cessation: a double blind, placebo controlled randomised trial and semi structured interviews
Kerr, M. J. (2008) · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Effectiveness of Functional Family Therapy in a Non‐Western Context: Findings from a Randomized‐Controlled Evaluation of Youth Offenders in Singapore
Gan, D. Z. Q., Zhou, Y., Wahab, N. D. B. A., Ruby, K., & Hoo, E. (2021) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12630 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Adolescents' Experiences of Scoliosis Surgery and the Trajectory of Self-Reported Pain
Rullander, A., Lundström, M. O., Östlund, U., & Lindh, V. (2017) · Orthopaedic Nursing · doi:10.1097/nor.0000000000000402 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Supervised Aerobic Exercise Training and Increased Lifestyle Physical Activity to Reduce Cardiovascular Disease Risk for Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Feasibility Trial
Woodward, A., Broom, D. R., Dalton, C., Metwally, M., & Klonizakis, M. (2022) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2022-0103 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Low energy density diet, weight loss maintenance, and risk of cardiovascular disease following a recent weight reduction program: A randomized control trial
Karimi, G., Azadbakht, L., Haghighatdoost, F., & Esmaillzadeh, A. (2016) · Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.4103/1735-1995.181992 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“[27] Participant’s data in their groups were analyzed based on random allocation, which was generated by a nurse, regardless of whether or not they actually adhered the dietary intervention.”
A pilot randomized control trial on the feasibility, acceptability, and initial effects of a digital-assisted parenting intervention for promoting mental health in Malaysian adolescents
Zulkefly, N. S., Schaff, A. R. D., Zaini, N. A., Mukhtar, F., & Dahlan, R. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241249572 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“59 To enable a comparison of post-treatment effect sizes between the variables, all effect sizes of parametric and nonparametric tests were computed using Cohen ’ s d via Psychometrica, a free online computing software.”
Method
Flowable bulk-fill versus layering restorative material on Class II restorations: A randomized clinical trial
Torres, C. R. G., Mailart, M. C., Moecke, S. E., Matuda, A. G. N., Veloso, S. M., Ávila, D. M. D. S., Nicoló, R. D., & Borges, A. B. (2024) · Journal of Dentistry · doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2024.105154 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Additional cardiovascular fitness when progressing from moderate- to high-intensity exercise training in previously trained breast cancer survivors
Bell, R., Baldi, J. C., & Jones, L. M. (2021) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-021-06259-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“An intention to treat analysis was used with the last-observation-carried-forward method used to address missing data [21].”
Method
Effects of quetiapine and olanzapine in patients with psychosis and violent behavior: a pilot randomized, open-label, comparative study
Gobbi, G., & Comai, S. (2014) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s59968 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Intrathecal baclofen bolus reduces exaggerated extensor coactivation during pre-swing and early-swing of gait after acquired brain injury
Chow, J. W., Yablon, S. A., & Stokić, D. S. (2017) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2017.02.017 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The efficacy and acceptability of the Triple P: Positive Parenting Program with Turkish parents
Arkan, B., Güvenir, T., Ralph, A., & Day, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.12283 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Authors: Streiner, D., & Geddes, J.
Affiliations: Editors, Evidence-Based Mental Health
ORCID: Streiner, David
Geddes, John
Venue: Evidence Based Mental Health
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2001-08
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
Pages: 70-71
ISSN: 1362-0347 (ISSN-L)
1468-960X
DOI: 10.1136/ebmh.4.3.70
OpenAlex: W2150091817
Cited by: 148
References: 3
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 4
FWCI: 2.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: Evidence-Based Mental Health (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: intention-to-treat analysis, missing data, clinical trials, missing data mechanisms, bias in treatment effect estimation
MeSH terms: Clinical Trials as Topic, Humans, Patient Dropouts, Models, Statistical

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Intention to treat analysis in clinical trials when there are missing data

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks