Is there a “school effect” on pupil outcomes? A review of multilevel studies
Open accessAbstract
Study objective: The school environment is of importance for child outcomes. Multilevel analyses can separate determinants operating at an individual level from those operating at a contextual level. This paper aims to systematically review multilevel studies of school contextual effects on pupil outcomes. Design: Key word searching of five databases yielded 17 cross sectional or longitudinal studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Results are summarised with reference to type of school contextual determinant. Main results: Four main school effects on pupil outcomes were identified. Having a health policy or antismoking policy, a good school climate, high average socioeconomic status, and urban location had a positive effect on pupil outcomes. Outcomes under study were smoking habits, wellbeing, problem behaviour, and school achievement. Conclusions: Despite the different pupil outcomes and the variety of determinants used in the included papers, a school effect was evident. However, to improve our understanding of school effects, presentations of results from multilevel studies need to be standardised. Intraclass correlation and explained between school variance give relevant information on factors in the school environment influencing pupil outcomes, and should be included in all multilevel studies. Inclusion of pupil level predictors in the multilevel models should be based on theoretical considerations of how schools and communities are interconnected and how pupils and their families are influenced by school contextual factors.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In some cross-sectional observational studies, students at schools with stronger policies restricting tobacco use were less likely to be current smokers.
“In some, but not other, cross-sectional observational studies, students at schools with stronger policies restricting tobacco use were less likely to be current smokers.”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [444]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Multilevel analysis : an introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling
Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. (1999) · Cited by 6,830 · see citing works
Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?
Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P. K., & Sealand, N. (1993) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/230268 · Cited by 1,687 · see citing works
Consequences of growing up poor
Duncan, G. J., & Brooks‐Gunn, J. (1999) · Russell Sage Foundation eBooks · Cited by 1,429 · see citing works
Bringing context back into epidemiology: variables and fallacies in multilevel analysis
Diez-Roux, A. V. (1998) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.88.2.216 · Cited by 1,317 · see citing works
Multilevel Analysis in Public Health Research
Roux, A. V. D. (2000) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.21.1.171 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
(2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195138382.001.0001 · Cited by 1,153 · see citing works
Inner-city poverty in the United States
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-6514 · Cited by 969 · see citing works
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989) · Research in Criminology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9637-6 · Cited by 947 · see citing works
Battistich, V. A., Solomon, D., Kim, D., Watson, M. S., & Schaps, E. M. (1995) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312032003627 · Cited by 717 · see citing works
Context, composition and heterogeneity: using multilevel models in health research
Duncan, C., Jones, K., & Moon, G. (1998) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00148-2 · Cited by 689 · see citing works
(1980) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/0142569800010206 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
School-Based Prevention of Problem Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis
Wilson, D. B., Gottfredson, D. C., & Najaka, S. S. (2001) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1023/a:1011050217296 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
School Effectiveness and School Improvement: Sustaining Links
Creemers, B., & Reezigt, G. J. (1997) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/0924345970080402 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Future Directions in Residential Segregation and Health Research: A Multilevel Approach
Acevedo‐García, D., Lochner, K. A., Osypuk, T. L., & Subramanian, S. V. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.215 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Improving School Effectiveness
MacBeath, J., & Mortimore, P. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Estimating neighborhood health effects: the challenges of causal inference in a complex world
Roux, A. V. D. (2004) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00414-3 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Ecological effects in multi-level studies
Blakely, T. A., & Woodward, A. J. (2000) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.54.5.367 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Multilevel Methods for Public Health Research
Subramanian, S. V., Jones, K., & Duncan, C. (2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195138382.003.0004 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Merlo, J. (2003) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.57.8.550 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Can the school make a difference? A multilevel analysis of adolescent risk and health behaviour
Maes, L., & Lievens, J. (2002) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00052-7 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Moore, L., Roberts, C., & Tudor‐Smith, C. (2001) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.10.2.117 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
School Effectiveness and School Improvement
Stoll, L., & Mortimore, P. (1995) · Cited by 155 · see citing works
A review of school drug policies and their impact on youth substance use
Evans-Whipp, T. J. (2004) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dah210 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Johnson, R. A., & Hoffmann, J. P. (2000) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2676293 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
A methodological and substantive review of the evidence that schools cause pupils to smoke
Aveyard, P. N., Markham, W. A., & Cheng, K. K. (2003) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.08.012 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
The consequences of growing up poor
Lancker, W. V., & Vinck, J. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429058103-8 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Evaluation of Well-Being in Schools ? A Multilevel Analysis of General Subjective Well-Being
Konu, A., Lintonen, T., & Autio, V. J. (2002) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1076/sesi.13.2.187.3432 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Smoking in young adolescents: an approach with multilevel discrete choice models
Pinilla, J., López‐Valcárcel, B. G., Pérez, P. B., & Santana-Jiménez, Y. (2002) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.56.3.227 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Environmental Equity and Health: Understanding Complexity and Moving Forward
Northridge, M. E., Stover, G. N., Rosenthal, J. E., & Sherard, D. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.209 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
A multilevel analysis of school-based weapon possession
Wilcox, P., & Clayton, R. (2001) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820100095001 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Rural and Urban Differences in Student Achievement in Science and Mathematics: A Multilevel Analysis
Young, D. J. (1998) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/0924345980090403 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Duncan, D. T., & Kawachi, I. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190843496.003.0001 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Webster, B., & Fisher, D. (2000) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1076/0924-3453(200009)11:3;1-g;ft339 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Kawachi, I. (2003) · Cited by 74 · see citing works
A Contextual Model of Adolescent Alcohol Use across the Rural-Urban Continuum
Rountree, P. W., & Clayton, R. (1999) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826089909037228 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Victimization among Middle and High School Students: A Multilevel Analysis
George, R. M., & Thomas, G. C. (2000) · The High School journal/The High school journal · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Do Schools Perform Consistently across Outcomes and Areas
Sammons, P., Mortimore, P., & Thomas, S. M. (1996) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 42 · see citing works
A Multilevel Analysis of School Factors Associated with Health-Related Fitness
Zhu, W. (1997) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.1997.10607988 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Methodology and Scientific Properties of School Effectiveness Research
Teddlie, C. B., Reynolds, D., & Sammons, P. (2002) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203454404-10 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Pupil‐class determinants of aggressive and victim behaviour in pupils
Mooij, T. (1998) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1998.tb01298.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
van den Oord, E. J. C. G., & Rispens, J. (1999) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00459 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Adolescent depressive symptomatology
Roeger, L. S., Allison, S. C., Martin, G., Dadds, V., & Keeves, J. P. (2001) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530108255135 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Cosmopolitan Environments and Adolescents' Gains in Social Studies
Blau, J. R., Lamb, V. L., Stearns, E., et al. (2001) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.2307/2673166 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).
Harris, S. (1994) · Mathematics in school · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Tobacco smoking among fourth form school students in Wellington, New Zealand, 1991-97
Reeder, A. I., Williams, S., McGee, R. O., et al. (1999) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1111/j.1467-842x.1999.tb01305.x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Reynolds D, Teddie C. The process of school effectiveness. In: Reynolds D, ed. The international handbook on school effectiveness research. London: Falmer Press, 1997:134-59.
- Rutter M. Developing minds. London: Penguin, 1993.
- Durkheim E. Suicide. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mozaffarian, D., Afshin, A., Benowitz, N. L., Bittner, V., Daniels, S. R., Franch, H. A., Jacobs, D. R., Kraus, W. E., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Krummel, D. A., et al. (2012) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e318260a20b · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Quin, D. (2017) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654316669434 · Cited by 565 · see citing works
Fletcher, A., Bonell, C., & Hargreaves, J. (2008) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.020 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Bonell, C., Jamal, F., Harden, A., Wells, H., Parry, W., Fletcher, A., Petticrew, M., Thomas, J., Whitehead, M., Campbell, R., et al. (2013) · Public Health Research · doi:10.3310/phr01010 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Multilevel evaluation of factors predicting school exclusion among middle and high school students
Theriot, M. T., Craun, S. W., & Dupper, D. R. (2010) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.06.009 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Samara, M., Da Silva Nascimento, B., El-Asam, A., Hammuda, S., & Khattab, N. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052209 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Physical Activity of Children Attending Afterschool Programs
Beets, M. W., Huberty, J., & Beighle, A. (2012) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.007 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Lovato, C. Y., Zeisser, C., Campbell, H. S., Watts, A. W., Halpin, P., Thompson, M., Eyles, J., Adlaf, E., & Brown, K. S. (2010) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.08.019 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
School policies for preventing smoking among young people
Coppo, A., Galanti, M. R., Giordano, L., Buscemi, D., Bremberg, S., & Faggiano, F. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009990.pub2 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationRamberg, J., & Modin, B. (2019) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-019-09486-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sellström, E., & Bremberg, S.
- Affiliations
- Mid Sweden University (SE)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Sellström, E
- Venue
- Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2006-01-13
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 149-155
- ISSN
- 0141-7681 (ISSN-L)
- 0143-005X
- 1470-2738
- PMC
- PMC2566146
- OpenAlex
- W2059623837
- Cited by
- 306
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 2.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › School Health and Nursing Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Environments and Student Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- school influence, school context, student outcomes, school climate, anti-smoking policy, health policy, socioeconomic status, urban location, adolescent smoking, adolescent wellbeing, behavioral problems, academic performance, intraclass correlation coefficient
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Child, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Schools, Social Environment, Social Values, Students, Organizational Culture, Multivariate Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
