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Blind people and mobile touch-based text-entry: acknowledging the need for different flavors
Abstract
The emergence of touch-based mobile devices brought fresh and exciting possibilities. These came at the cost of a considerable number of novel challenges. They are particularly apparent with the blind population, as these devices lack tactile cues and are extremely visually demanding. Existing solutions resort to assistive screen reading software to compensate the lack of sight, still not all the information reaches the blind user. Good spatial ability is still required to have notion of the device and its interface, as well as the need to memorize buttons' position on screen. These abilities, as many other individual attributes as age, age of blindness onset or tactile sensibility are often forgotten, as the blind population is presented with the same methods ignoring capabilities and needs. Herein, we present a study with 13 blind people consisting of a touch screen text-entry task with four different methods. Results show that different capability levels have significant impact on performance and that this impact is related with the different methods' demands. These variances acknowledge the need of accounting for individual characteristics and giving space for difference, towards inclusive design.
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“Individual attributes and abilities have a significant impact on learning different text entry methods and on their performance [12], but so do previous experiences and technical aptitudes of users.”
From Designing a text entry multimodal keypad for blind users of touchscreen mobile phones (2014) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“Most work on non-visual text-entry for people with visual impairments has focused on the comparison of input techniques reporting on performance measures, such as accuracy and speed.”
From Typing Performance of Blind Users (2015) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“While the visual layout of the QWERTY keyboard is identical to that presented to sighted users, the text-entry rates are much slower for visually impaired users [19].”
From Typing Performance of Blind Users (2015) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“While researchers have been able to establish that non-visual input is slow and error prone, there is little understanding on how to improve it.”
From Typing Performance of Blind Users (2015) · cites this paper as [19]
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Cited by
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Azenkot, S., & Lee, N. B. (2013) · Proceedings of the 15th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility · doi:10.1145/2513383.2513440 · Cited by 151
“Methods that were not based on Braille [9,25,34], including No-Look Notes [6] and NavTouch [22], did not achieve comparable performance to the former set.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn evaluation of BrailleTouch: mobile touchscreen text entry for the visually impaired
Southern, C., Clawson, J., Frey, B., Abowd, G., & Romero, M. (2012) · Proceedings of the 14th international conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and services · doi:10.1145/2371574.2371623 · Cited by 125
Getting Smartphones to Talkback
Rodrigues, A., Montague, K., Nicolau, H., & Guerreiro, T. (2015) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/2700648.2809842 · Cited by 101
“One particular task that has been vastly explored is text input, where alternative gesture-based [7], multiple selection-[4] and Braille-based [3, 13, 14] methods have been devised.”
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Grussenmeyer, W., & Folmer, E. (2017) · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3022701 · Cited by 86
Accessible smartphones for blind users: A case study for a wayfinding system
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“For digital user interfaces, there are numerous applications for the input and recognition of Braille on touchscreens [3, 27, 34, 52], and alternatives for text-entry or navigating digital menus [7, 38, 24, 25, 63].”
MethodKim, H. K., Han, S. H., Park, J., & Park, J. (2016) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2016.07.002 · Cited by 80
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Milne, L., Bennett, C. L., Ladner, R. E., & Azenkot, S. (2014) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility · doi:10.1145/2661334.2661377 · Cited by 79
Khan, A., & Khusro, S. (2019) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-018-7094-y · Cited by 63
“Therefore, haptic feedback or touch perception is used by the blind people to perceive item of interest thus establishing a sense of awareness of the object/item on the screen [47].”
BackgroundOpen Challenges of Blind People Using Smartphones
Rodrigues, A., Nicolau, H., Montague, K., Guerreiro, J., & Guerreiro, T. (2020) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2020.1768672 · Cited by 53
Self-citationAnalyzing visually impaired people’s touch gestures on smartphones
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“Both sensory and cognitive capabilities have a significant impact on touch-based interaction performance [35].”
BackgroundReyes-Cruz, G., Fischer, J. E., & Reeves, S. (2020) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376767 · Cited by 52
TypeInBraille: Quick Eyes-Free Typing on Smartphones
Mascetti, S., Bernareggi, C., & Belotti, M. (2012) · International Conference on Computers for Handicapped Persons · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31534-3_90 · Cited by 42
“In a recent contribution the “BrailleType” solution is proposed [6].”
BackgroundGAWA - Manager for accessibility Wayfinding apps
Rodríguez-Sánchez, M. C., & Martínez-Romo, J. (2017) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.05.011 · Cited by 41
Smartphone Usage by Expert Blind Users
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Typing Performance of Blind Users
Nicolau, H., Montague, K., Guerreiro, T., Rodrigues, A., & Hanson, V. L. (2015) · Proceedings of the 17th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers & Accessibility - ASSETS '15 · doi:10.1145/2700648.2809861 · Cited by 37
“mobile touchscreen devices; including new keyboard layouts [3, 8] and alternative methods of inputting text [1, 16, 19, 22, 23].”
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“Research has tried to improve these interfaces by leveraging gesture-based interaction, including understanding the preference and performance of both new and reference gestures [16], presenting new text-entry methods [12, 21] and browsing the interface using multitouch actions [15].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLi, M., Fan, M., & Truong, K. N. (2017) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3132525.3132528 · Cited by 35
“BrailleType [19] divides the touchscreen of a phone into a 3×2 grid.”
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Azenkot, S., Bennett, C. L., & Ladner, R. E. (2013) · Proceedings of the 26th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology · doi:10.1145/2501988.2502056 · Cited by 35
“Azenkot et al [2], Frey et al [7], and Oliveira [20,21], proposed eyesfree techniques for blind people based on Braille.”
BackgroundB#: chord-based correction for multitouch braille input
Nicolau, H., Montague, K., Guerreiro, T., Guerreiro, J., & Hanson, V. L. (2014) · International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2556288.2557269 · Cited by 34
“Particularly, typing is still slow compared to what sighted people experience [4].”
BackgroundSelf-citationKhan, A., & Khusro, S. (2021) · Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing · doi:10.1007/s12652-021-03393-5 · Cited by 36
“The blind people are using smartphones either through direct exploration (Guerreiro et al. 2015), text-entry (Oliveira et al. 2011), gesture-based (Buzzi et al. 2016), multiple selections, and braille-to-smartphone integration (Kane et al. 2008; Southern et al. 2012).”
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Designing a text entry multimodal keypad for blind users of touchscreen mobile phones
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“ Individual attributes and abilities have a significant impact on learning different text entry methods and on their performance [12], but so do previous experiences and technical aptitudes of users.”
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Ghidini, E., Almeida, W. D. L., Manssour, I., & Silveira, M. (2016) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.1109/hicss.2016.704 · Cited by 27
“In this context, we can find some works that seek to verify whether or not some technologies are accessible for users [3][7].”
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“Despite evidence of the existence of more than a thousand commercial health applications [11], there are limited mobile applications for users who are visually-impaired, and those that are available fail to meet the required standard of quality, design and accessibility[17–19].”
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TabLETS Get Physical: Non-Visual Text Entry on Tablet Devices
Guerreiro, J., Rodrigues, A., Montague, K., Guerreiro, T., Nicolau, H., & Gonçalves, D. (2015) · Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2702123.2702373 · Cited by 24
“This approach tends to be very slow particularly for novice users [7].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationHuang, H. (2018) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-017-0550-z · Cited by 23
“A review of HCI conference proceedings [16, 20, 22, 31], the Guidebook of Touchscreen Interface Design [7, 32, 41, 44], and some ergonomic engineering books [12, 40] was also conducted to obtain additional items.”
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“A blind person would definitely be able to access the traditional keypad–based phone to place a call, but it would be immensely difficult for him/her to do the same on today’s phones which involve the touch screen interface [1].”
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Thoo, Y.-J., Medina, M. J., Froehlich, J. E., Ruffieux, N., & Lalanne, D. (2023) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3597638.3608412 · Cited by 29
“, via a computer peripheral [4, 64, 107] or touchscreen [58, 59, 84]) was considered 32 times.”
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“Oliveira et al. [12] evaluated different types of keyboards for blind users to observe and evaluate their difficulties: Nav-Touch, MultiTap, QWERTY and Braille-Type.”
Accessible Gesture Typing for Non-Visual Text Entry on Smartphones
Billah, S. M., Ko, Y.-J., Ashok, V., Bi, X., & Ramakrishnan, IV (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300606 · Cited by 21
“[17] describe a study around mobile touch-based text entry tasks with blind users and conclude that individual differences impact performance.”
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Khan, A., Khusro, S., Niazi, B., Ahmad, J., Alam, I., & Khan, I. (2018) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-018-0633-5 · Cited by 24
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Self-citationBraille Text Entry on Smartphones: A Systematic Review of the Literature
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Buzzi, M. C., Buzzi, M., Leporini, B., & Trujillo, A. (2015) · ACM SIGCHI Italian Chapter International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/2808435.2808448 · Cited by 19
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Rodrigues, A., Montague, K., Nicolau, H., Guerreiro, J., & Guerreiro, T. (2017) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility · doi:10.1145/3132525.3132555 · Cited by 16
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Wu, Z., Yu, C., Xu, X., Wei, T., Zou, T., Wang, R., & Shi, Y. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445322 · Cited by 16
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Guerreiro, J. (2016) · ASAC · doi:10.1145/2961108.2961110 · Cited by 8
“Besides being slow when inputting text in soft QWERTY keyboards (the defacto method), it is also error prone [18].”
MethodTowards accessible mobile pattern authentication for persons with visual impairments
Balaji, V., & Kuppusamy, K. S. (2017) · 2017 International Conference on Computational Intelligence in Data Science(ICCIDS) · doi:10.1109/iccids.2017.8272662 · Cited by 7
“Normal solution to prevent this issue is that user needs to use an effective authentication application such as security lock system in their mobile devices [9].”
BackgroundText entry for the Blind on Smartwatches: A study of Braille code input methods for a novel device
Luna, M. M., Nascimento, H. A. D., Quigley, A., & Soares, F. (2023) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-022-00870-2 · Cited by 7
Evaluating Smartphone Screen Divisions for Designing Blind-Friendly Touch-Based Interfaces
Khusro, S., Niazi, B., Khan, A., & Alam, I. (2019) · International Conference on Frontiers of Information Technology (FIT) · doi:10.1109/fit47737.2019.00068 · Cited by 12
“The magnitude of these issues will result in interface complexity, inconsistency and extended navigational routes [10].”
BackgroundAlly: Understanding Text Messaging to Build a Better Onscreen Keyboard for Blind People
Lottridge, D., Yoon, C., Burton, D., Wang, C., & Kaye, J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3533707 · Cited by 6
“While recent research [37] suggests that speech recognition accuracy has improved, the laboratory conditions under which such research is conducted are significantly different from the noisy environs of a subway train or crowded office.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialImproving the Screen Exploration of Smartphones Using Haptic Icons for Visually Impaired Users
González-Cañete, F. J., López-Rodríguez, J., Galdón, P. M., & Díaz-Estrella, A. (2021) · Italian National Conference on Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21155024 · Cited by 6
“Consequently, VI people use a much slower process to operate a smartphone [4], one requiring a high cognitive load [5,6], which has a negative impact on the user experience.”
BackgroundTyping Slowly but Screen-Free: Exploring Navigation over Entirely Auditory Keyboards
Mathur, R., Sheth, A., Vyas, P., & Bolchini, D. (2019) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility · doi:10.1145/3308561.3353789 · Cited by 6
Cho, H., Park, K., & Choi, S. (2018) · IEEE International Workshop on Haptic Audio visual Environments and Games · doi:10.1109/have.2018.8547502 · Cited by 6
“designing text-entry methods for visually-impaired users [17].”
Why visually impaired people resist to adopt touchscreen smartphones in the Czech Republic?
Balata, J., & Míkovec, Z. (2016) · IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications · doi:10.1109/coginfocom.2016.7804523 · Cited by 6
“[17] have shown in their study comparing four different text-entry systems, different people had different performance on different textentry systems.”
BackgroundSaSYS: A Swipe Gesture-Based System for Exploring Urban Environments for the Visually Impaired
Kim, J.-E., Bessho, M., Koshizuka, N., & Sakamura, K. (2013) · Mobile Computing, Applications, and Services · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05452-0_5 · Cited by 6
“) could affect the performance [12]; and to perform the task, users had to interact much more with SaSYS.”
BackgroundBraille text entry on smartwatches: an evaluation of methods for composing the Braille cell
Luna, M. M., de M. N. Soares, F. A. A., Nascimento, H. A. D., & Quigley, A. (2019) · Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Symposium on Engineering Interactive Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3319499.3328233 · Cited by 5
A Review of Smartphone's Text Entry for Visually Impaired
Shahid, H., Ali Shah, M., Dar, B. K., & Fizzah, F. (2018) · 2018 24th International Conference on Automation and Computing (ICAC) · doi:10.23919/iconac.2018.8749128 · Cited by 5
“A study [37] compared four different text entry methods, namely: BrailleType, MultiTap, NavTouch, and soft QWERTY keyboard.”
BackgroundMethodMedina, M. J., Thoo, Y.-J., Baudet, C., Froehlich, J. E., Ruffieux, N., & Lalanne, D. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3726531 · Cited by 5
“The touch modality is facilitated through mainstream technologies, such as touchscreens [90, 91, 138], and assistive technologies like braille and wearable devices [141].”
Kocielinski, D., & Brzostek-Pawlowska, J. (2013) · International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services · doi:10.1145/2493190.2494439 · Cited by 5
“in turn noticed lower erroneousness in case of entering text in Braille, using a physical or virtual keyboard [2, 4] e.”
MethodResultSensory Aids for Persons With Visual Impairments
Cook, A., Polgar, J., & Encarnação, P. (2020) · Assistive Technologies · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-52338-7.00016-0 · Cited by 5
The usability of text entry systems now and in the future
Clawson, J., Brewster, S., Dunlop, M., Kristensson, P., Isokoski, P., Oulasvirta, A., Vertanen, K., & Waller, A. (2014) · CHI Extended Abstracts · doi:10.1145/2559206.2559217 · Cited by 4
“We attracted high-quality submissions and brought researchers active outside of the HCI field to the CHI conference.”
BackgroundDevelopment of a More Universal Voting Interface
Lee, S., Liu, Y., Xiong, X., & Sanford, J. (2013) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931213571361 · Cited by 4
“The delete and space key are located at the corners of the screen to simplify the touchscreen navigation for visually-impaired people, since blind users find edge and corners better on touchscreen (Oliveira, Guerreiro, Nicolau, Jorge, & Gonçalves, 2011).”
BackgroundAntona, M., Stephanidis, C., & Bertino, E. (2020) · Interacción · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49282-3 · Cited by 4
Exploring Shared Augmented Reality for Low-Vision Training of Activities of Daily Living
Thoo, Y.-J., Aebischer, K., Ruffieux, N., & Lalanne, D. (2025) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3663547.3746371 · Cited by 2
Abdulreda, H., Doush, I. A., & Almeraj, Z. (2024) · International Conference on Software Development for Enhancing Accessibility and Fighting Info-exclusion · doi:10.1145/3696593.3696651 · Cited by 3
“Other works focusing on challenges faced by visually impaired individuals in using smartphones, have identified difficulties with login processes and inconsistent assistance, underscoring the need for improved accessibility measures [37, 42, 46, 47].”
Exploring the impact of word prediction assistive features on smartphone keyboards for blind users
Alnfiai, M., & Kabir, M. A. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36653 · Cited by 3
“Despite modern technology, people with impaired vision face difficulties when using input methods on touchscreen devices due to the absence of physical keys, either because they are prone to making errors or because the tasks are too arduous [3 – 8].”
BackgroundImproving Accessibility Design on Touchscreens
Xu, S. (2015) · Interacción · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20681-3_15 · Cited by 3
“[9] compared four methods: QWERTY, MultiTap, NavTouch, and BrailleType.”
Designing ballot interfaces for voters with vision disabilities
Lee, S. (2014) · CHI Extended Abstracts · doi:10.1145/2559206.2579414 · Cited by 3
“All the buttons are placed in the corners or the edges of the screen for blind or visuallyimpaired users [9, 11].”
BackgroundSlideType: universal design text-entry interface for touchscreen devices
Xiong, X., & Sanford, J. (2013) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility · doi:10.1145/2513383.2513429 · Cited by 3
“SlideType user interface utilizes the edge and corners of the screen for better navigation[14].”
MethodSIG: NVI (non-visual interaction)
Brock, A. M., Kammoun, S., Nicolau, H., Guerreiro, T., Kane, S. K., & Jouffrais, C. (2013) · CHI Extended Abstracts · doi:10.1145/2468356.2468818 · Cited by 3
“Non-visual interaction techniques typically leverage modalities such as haptics [10] and audio [13,18], and feature applications such as internet browsing [1], text entry [14], indoor and outdoor navigation [2,10], maps exploration [5,8], games [15], crowd-based Q&A [4], and even photography [9].”
Self-citationUser Requirements for Camera-Based Mobile Applications on Touch Screen Devices for Blind People
Choi, Y., & Hong, K.-H. (2012) · International Conference on Computers for Handicapped Persons · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31534-3_8 · Cited by 3
Voice-Based Email for Visually Challenged
Lekha, Bhargav, S., Pratap, B., & Das, S. (2025) · IJARCCE · doi:10.17148/ijarcce.2025.14633 · Cited by 2
Alajarmeh, N., & Ladner, R. (2024) · International journal of human computer interactions · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2376356 · Cited by 2
“These challenges can be compiled in: typing complexity and speed (Azenkot, Wobbrock, et al., 2012; Barbosa et al., 2016; Oliveira et al., 2011), memorization (Hayes et al., 2017), and exposure to various security threats (Ahmed et al., 2015; Azenkot, Rector et al., 2012; Napoli et al., 2021).”
Samanta, D., & Chakraborty, T. S. (2020) · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3406537 · Cited by 2
“A similar solution has been proposed based on the layout of the traditional 4×3 telephone keypad [25, 44] (Figure 4(b)).”
MethodWell-Being Through Design for Dynamic Diversity: The Voice of Minorities in Design for All
Butlewski, M. (2019) · International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20145-6_5 · Cited by 2
Android Based Braille Tutor System for Visually Impaired People
Kulkarni, S., & Sannakki, S. (2018) · doi:10.32628/ijsrst184838 · Cited by 2
Research and implementation of blind reader system based on android platform
Wang, J., Guo, X., & Xiao, K. (2016) · 2016 13th International Computer Conference on Wavelet Active Media Technology and Information Processing (ICCWAMTIP) · doi:10.1109/iccwamtip.2016.8079840 · Cited by 2
“, [1]), no single solution has yet been widely accepted by the blind community, mainly because existing systems cannot satisfy all of visually impaired people’s mobility needs, and usually require additional dedicated hardware that is expensive and cumbersome.”
BackgroundFinger Based Techniques for Nonvisual Touchscreen Text Entry
Fakrudeen, M., Yousef, S., Miraz, M. H., & Hussein, A. (2015) · International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists · doi:10.1142/9789814667364_0028 · Cited by 2
“Oliver et al. [4,9] propose a new text entry based on Braille.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA Review of Popular Applications on Google Play - Do They Cater to Visually Impaired Users?
Venugopal, G. (2015) · arXiv.org · doi:10.17485/ijst/2015/v8is4/61436 · Cited by 2
Ember: A Smartphone Web Browser Interface for the Blind
Jassi, I., Ruchika, S., Pulakhandam, S., Mukherjee, S., Ashwin, T., & Reddy, G. R. (2014) · International Symposiu on Visual Information Communication and Interaction · doi:10.1145/2636240.2636847 · Cited by 2
“2 Acknowledging the Need for a Different Method of Touch Based Text Entry In [2], four different methods of text input were analyzed.”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Oliveira, J., Guerreiro, T., Nicolau, H., Jorge, J., & Gonçalves, D.
- Affiliations
- Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investigação e Desenvolvimento (PT)
- Venue
- The proceedings of the 13th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2011-10-24
- Pages
- 179-186
- OpenAlex
- W2123382439
- Cited by
- 123
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 20.74
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Digital Accessibility for Disabilities
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Assistive Technology in Communication and Mobility
- Keywords
- blind users, mobile devices, assistive technology, screen readers, tactile cues, spatial ability, tactile sensitivity, individual differences, inclusive design, accessibility
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