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Opening up ChatGPT: Tracking openness, transparency, and accountability in instruction-tuned text generators
Open accessAbstract
Large language models that exhibit instruction-following behaviour represent one of the biggest recent upheavals in conversational interfaces, a trend in large part fuelled by the release of OpenAI’s ChatGPT, a proprietary large language model for text generation fine-tuned through reinforcement learning from human feedback (LLM+RLHF). We review the risks of relying on proprietary software and survey the first crop of open-source projects of comparable architecture and functionality. The main contribution of this paper is to show that openness is differentiated, and to offer scientific documentation of degrees of openness in this fast-moving field. We evaluate projects in terms of openness of code, training data, model weights, RLHF data, licensing, scientific documentation, and access methods. We find that while there is a fast-growing list of projects billing themselves as ‘open source’, many inherit undocumented data of dubious legality, few share the all-important instruction-tuning (a key site where human annotation labour is involved), and careful scientific documentation is exceedingly rare. Degrees of openness are relevant to fairness and accountability at all points, from data collection and curation to model architecture, and from training and fine-tuning to release and deployment.
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“For many scientists and public interest practitioners, this lack of transparency is at best concerning, and often a reason to avoid such models in their work altogether [38, 46].”
From Laboratory-Scale AI: Open-Weight Models are Competitive with ChatGPT Even in Low-Resource Settings (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
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“For one, we are already seeing a strong trend towards selective and self-serving forms of openness, both in release strategies and in empirical surveys of model openness ([32, 53, 60], and see below).”
From Rethinking open source generative AI: open washing and the EU AI Act (2024) · cites this paper as [32]
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“Open generative AI systems are on the rise, with small players and academic initiatives leading the way in open innovation and scientific documentation [20, 32, 61] and several larger corporations joining the fray by releasing models billed as 'open'.”
From Rethinking open source generative AI: open washing and the EU AI Act (2024) · cites this paper as [32]
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“The multi-faceted nature of openness is also seen in initiatives that aim to codify transparency from upstream resources to downstream uses [8] and in a proposal like the Linux Foundation's model openness framework [59], which shows many likenesses to the dimensions we use here and introduced in [32].”
From Rethinking open source generative AI: open washing and the EU AI Act (2024) · cites this paper as [32]
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Hayat, A. (2025) · Journal of Management World · doi:10.53935/jomw.v2024i4.632 · Cited by 2
Responsible AI for Government Program Evaluation and Performance Audits
Fonner, D. F., & Coyle, F. P. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata62323.2024.10825518 · Cited by 1
Trustworthiness Evaluation of Large Language Models
Chen, P., & Liu, S. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-76770-8_12 · Cited by 2
ChapGTP, ILLC’s Attempt at Raising a BabyLM: Improving Data Efficiency by Automatic Task Formation
Jumelet, J., Hanna, M., Kloots, M. D. H., Langedijk, A., Pouw, C., & van der Wal, O. (2023) · BabyLM Challenge · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.conll-babylm.6 · Cited by 1
Whither developmental psycholinguistics?Preprint
Gomes, V. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zm57t · Cited by 1
Is it time for the neurologist to use Large Language Models in everyday practice?Preprint
Maiorana, N. V., Marceglia, S. R. F., Treddenti, M., Tosi, M., Guidetti, M., Creta, M. F., Bocci, T., Oliveri, S., Boneschi, F. M., & Priori, A. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.01.23.25320945 · Cited by 1
Профессиональное самоопределение как компонент профессионального становления личности
Николаевна, Д. Т., & Николаевна, Ю. С. (2013) · Научное обеспечение системы повышения квалификации кадров
Macanovic, A., & Przepiorka, W. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/cerzs
Shen, S., & Andaya, M. (2024) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Big Data (AIBD) · doi:10.5121/csit.2024.140414
User Issues and Concerns in Generative AI: A Mixed-Methods Analysis of App Reviews
Bracamonte, V., Löbner, S., Tronnier, F., Lieberknecht, A.-K., & Pape, S. (2025) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-82633-7_19
Köylü, Y. (2025) · Journal of China Computer-Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1515/jccall-2025-0017 · Cited by 5
ChatGPT in the Assessment of Speaking
Aryadoust, V., & Zakaria, A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-51447-0_200-1 · Cited by 1
Benedetti, A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-01563-1_2
Large Language Models Readability Classification: A Variability Analysis of Sources and MetricsPreprint
de Matos, H. G. C., Wasmann, J.-W. A., Morata, T. C., Alvarenga, K. D. F., & JACOB, L. C. B. (2026) · medRxiv · doi:10.64898/2026.02.20.26346638 · Cited by 1
Meta-Evaluation Methodology and Benchmark for Automatic Story Generation
Chhun, C. (2024) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/ec296eb8z87a1z4fdbzbbbdz12bb27449b8f
Rofes, A., van Dijk, D., & Zemla, J. C. (2026) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-026-01869-3
Metadata
- Authors
- Liesenfeld, A., Lopez, A., & Dingemanse, M.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Conversational User Interfaces
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2023-07-19
- Pages
- 1-6
- OpenAlex
- W4384261711
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 12
- FWCI
- 27.28
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces (CUI) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (016.Vidi.185.205)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Topic Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, instruction-tuned language models, open-source large language models, openness, transparency, accountability, reinforcement learning from human feedback, model weights, licensing, scientific documentation, proprietary software
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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