The Late Heavy Bombardment
Abstract
Heavily cratered surfaces on the Moon, Mars, and Mercury show that the terrestrial planets were battered by an intense bombardment during their first billion years or more, but the timing, sources, and dynamical implications of these impacts are controversial. The Late Heavy Bombardment refers to impact events that occurred after stabilization of the planetary lithospheres such that they could be preserved as craters and basins. Lunar melt rocks and meteorite shock ages point toward a discrete episode of elevated impact flux between ∼3.5 and ∼4.0–4.2 Ga, and a relative quiescence between ∼4.0–4.2 and ∼4.4 Ga. Evidence from Precambrian impact spherule layers suggests that a long-lived tail of terrestrial impactors lasted to ∼2.0–2.5 Ga. Dynamical models that include populations residual from primary accretion and destabilized by giant planet migration can potentially account for the available observations, although all have pros and cons. The most parsimonious solution to match constraints is a hybrid model with discrete early, post-accretion and later, planetary instability–driven populations of impactors.
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Self-citationHeavy Bombardment of the Earth at ~3.85 Ga:
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Flagged first, then by citations
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“5 Ga ago, based on the ages of lunar rocks and meteorite shocks (24), althoughmany dispute that the LHBwas a discrete event (25).”
BackgroundSecular change and the onset of plate tectonics on Earth
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“…some studies suggested that there was a spike of meteorite impact flux around 3.9–3.8 Ga, which is known as the late heavy bombardment (LHB) (e.g., Bottke & Norman, 2017), although it remains controversial whether or not the LHB exists (e.g., Hartmann, 2019) and how long the duration of the LHB…”
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Imbrium Age for Zircons in Apollo 17 South Massif Impact Melt Breccia 73155
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Complex Crater Formation by Oblique Impacts on the Earth and Moon
Davison, T. M., & Collins, G. S. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl101117 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Late delivery of exotic chromium to the crust of Mars by water-rich carbonaceous asteroids
Zhu, K., Schiller, M., Pan, L., Saji, N. S., Larsen, K. K., Amsellem, E., Rundhaug, C., Sossi, P. A., Ingo Leya, D., Moynier, F., et al. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abp8415 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Planet Formation—Observational Constraints, Physical Processes, and Compositional Patterns
Mordasini, C., & Burn, R. (2024) · Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2024.90.03 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Origin and Dynamical Evolution of the Asteroid Belt
Raymond, S. N., & Nesvorný, D. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108856324.019 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Evidence against a Late Heavy Bombardment event on Vesta
Cartwright, J. A., Hodges, K. V., & Wadhwa, M. (2022) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117576 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A global network model of abiotic phosphorus cycling on Earth through time
Jusino-Maldonado, M., Rianço-Silva, R., Mondal, J. A., Pasek, M. A., Laneuville, M., & Cleaves, H. J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-12994-9 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hadean/Eoarchean tectonics and mantle mixing induced by impacts: a three-dimensional study
Borgeat, X., & Tackley, P. J. (2022) · Progress in Earth and Planetary Science · doi:10.1186/s40645-022-00497-0 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Characterization and interpretation of the global lunar impact basins based on remote sensing
Liu, J., Liu, J., Yue, Z., Zhang, L., Wang, J., & Zhu, K. (2022) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.114952 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Nimmo, F., Kretke, K. A., Ida, S., Matsumura, S., & Kleine, T. (2018) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-018-0533-2 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Temporally limited late accretion after core formation in the Moon
Day, J. M. D., & Paquet, M. (2021) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/maps.13646 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Mars as a time machine to Precambrian Earth
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Lei, K., Wang, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhang, J., Jin, W., Zheng, P.-X., & Li, X. (2023) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104606 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Meteorites and Planet Formation
Jones, R. H. (2024) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2024.90.04 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hoehnel, D., Reimold, W. U., Altenberger, U., Hofmann, A., Mohr‐Westheide, T., Özdemir, S., & Koeberl, C. (2017) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.11.020 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Mars volatile inventory and outgassing history
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Delivery of Organic Matter to the Early Earth
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Eta-Earth Revisited II: Deriving a Maximum Number of Earth-Like Habitats in the Galactic Disk
Scherf, M., Lammer, H., & Sproß, L. (2024) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2023.0076 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Evidence for multiple 4.0–3.7 Ga impact events within the Apollo 16 collection
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In Situ Geochronology for the Next Decade: Mission Designs for the Moon, Mars, and Vesta
Cohen, B. A., Young, K. E., Zellner, N. E. B., Zacny, K. A., Yingst, R. A., Watkins, R. N., Warwick, R., Valencia, S., Swindle, T. D., Robbins, S. J., et al. (2021) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/abedbf · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A material‐based panspermia hypothesis: The potential of polymer gels and membraneless droplets
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Composition of planetary crusts and planetary differentiation
McLennan, S. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813987-5.00008-0 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Racki, G., & Koeberl, C. (2024) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104904 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bottke, W. F., & Norman, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Southwest Research Institute (US)
- Australian National University (AU)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2017-08-30
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 619-647
- ISSN
- 0084-6597 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-4495
- OpenAlex
- W2519748279
- Cited by
- 271
- References
- 121
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 1.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (publishedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › History and Developments in Astronomy
- Keywords
- Late Heavy Bombardment, impact history, impact craters, giant planet migration, impactor population, terrestrial planets, Moon, Mars, mercury, impact flux
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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