Social Class Culture Cycles: How Three Gateway Contexts Shape Selves and Fuel Inequality
Open accessAbstract
America's unprecedented levels of inequality have far-reaching negative consequences for society as a whole. Although differential access to resources contributes to inequality, the current review illuminates how ongoing participation in different social class contexts also gives rise to culture-specific selves and patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. We integrate a growing body of interdisciplinary research to reveal how social class culture cycles operate over the course of the lifespan and through critical gateway contexts, including homes, schools, and workplaces. We first document how each of these contexts socializes social class cultural differences. Then, we demonstrate how these gateway institutions, which could provide access to upward social mobility, are structured according to middle-class ways of being a self and thus can fuel and perpetuate inequality. We conclude with a discussion of intervention opportunities that can reduce inequality by taking into account the contextual responsiveness of the self.
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Within the U.S., some contexts such as working-class or African American contexts highly value interdependence.
“Within the U.S., there are some contexts, such as working class or African American contexts, where interdependence is highly valued (Stephens, Markus, & Phillips, 2014; Brannon, Markus, & Taylor, 2015).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, & Phillips, 2014
The section “Different Selves: Expressive Independence Versus Hard Interdependence” says working-class contexts tend to foster norms of hard interdependence. The passages do not establish the same point for African American contexts, so that example is not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWorking-class contexts in the Western world are associated with interdependence and with less healthy eating.
“Because working class contexts have also been associated with interdependence (Stephens et al., 2014) and less healthy eating habits (e.g., Darmon & Drewnowski, 2008), in the Western world”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Stephens et al., 2014
Expressive independence is typical of those who grow up in affluent, middle-class contexts.
“The other type of self the authors identify is ‘expressive independence’, which is argued to be typical of those who grow up in affluent, middle‐class contexts.”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, and Phillips (2014)
Social class gives rise to culture-specific selves and patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
“they argue that social class gives rise to culture‐specific selves and patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, and Phillips (2014)
Middle-class schools and workplaces use expressive independence as a standard for measuring success, and thereby create institutional barriers to upward social mobility.
“They also argue that middle‐class schools and workplaces use expressive independence as a standard for measuring success, and thereby create institutional barriers to upward social mobility.”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, and Phillips (2014)
Middle-class contexts enable people to act in ways that reflect and further reinforce the independent cultural ideal.
“middle‐class contexts enable people to act in ways that reflect and further reinforce the independent cultural ideal”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, and Phillips (2014)
Working-class contexts tend to afford an understanding of the self and behavior as interdependent with others and the social context.
“working‐class contexts tend to afford an understanding of the self and behavior as interdependent with others and the social context”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens, Markus, and Phillips (2014)
The mismatch between working-class employees and their middle-class colleagues and institutions could reduce employees' job security and satisfaction, continuing the cycle of disadvantage for working-class employees.
“This mismatch between working‐class employees and their middle‐class colleagues and institutions could also reduce employees’ job security and satisfaction, continuing the cycle of disadvantage for working‐class employees.”
From The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as Stephens et al. (2014)
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- Authors
- Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, L. T.
- Affiliations
- 1Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60201; email: n-stephens@kellogg.northwestern.edu
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2014-01-03
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 611-634
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2161430222
- Cited by
- 539
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 6.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Cultural Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- social class, social inequality, socialization, middle class, social mobility, home, schools, workplace, lifespan development, contextual responsiveness
- MeSH terms
- Culture, Educational Status, Family, Humans, Schools, Social Class, Socioeconomic Factors, Workplace
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