Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan
Open accessAbstract
Healthy eating is important for physical health. Using large probability samples of middle-aged adults in the United States and Japan, we show that fitting with the culturally normative way of being predicts healthy eating. In the United States, a culture that prioritizes and emphasizes independence, being independent predicts eating a healthy diet (an index of fish, protein, fruit, vegetables, reverse-coded sugared beverages, and reverse-coded high fat meat consumption; Study 1) and not using nonmeat food as a way to cope with stress (Study 2a). In Japan, a culture that prioritizes and emphasizes interdependence, being interdependent predicts eating a healthy diet (Studies 1 and 2b). Furthermore, reflecting the types of agency that are prevalent in each context, these relationships are mediated by autonomy in the United States and positive relations with others in Japan. These findings highlight the importance of understanding cultural differences in shaping healthy behavior and have implications for designing health-promoting interventions.
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9 of 59 cited sources checked · 7 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
People who adhere to their relevant cultural norms tend to experience better life outcomes, including health and well-being.
“People who adhere to their relevant cultural norms tend to experience better life outcomes, including health and well-being (e.g., Kitayama, Karasawa, Curhan, Ryff, & Markus, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Kitayama, Karasawa, Curhan, Ryff, & Markus, 2010 source
- Premisecitation
A relatively less obvious but potentially powerful factor that could support a healthy lifestyle is the degree of fit or attunement between people and their cultural contexts.
“A less obvious but potentially powerful factor that could facilitate a healthy lifestyle is the relative degree of attunement or fit between people and their cultural contexts (De Leersnyder, Mesquita, Kim, Eom, & Choi, 2014; Oyserman, Fryberg, & Yoder, 2007; Uchida, Kitayama, Mesquita, Reyes & Morling, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
The healthy eating index used in the study predicts risk for chronic disease, especially cardiovascular disease.
“This index predicts risk for chronic disease, especially cardiovascular disease (McCullough & Willett, 2006; McCullough et al., 2002; Chiuve et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked - Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 2b, positive relations with others carried the link from interdependence to healthier eating.
“We again used Preacher & Hayes’s (2008) bootstrap procedure, which yielded a 95% bcCI that did not include zero (.01, .07). Thus, positive relations with others mediated the association between interdependence and eating a healthy diet.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Preacher & Hayes, 2008 source
- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Premisecitation
Within the U.S., some contexts such as working-class or African American contexts highly value interdependence.
“Within the U.S., there are some contexts, such as working class or African American contexts, where interdependence is highly valued (Stephens, Markus, & Phillips, 2014; Brannon, Markus, & Taylor, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Stephens, Markus, & Phillips, 2014 source
The section “Different Selves: Expressive Independence Versus Hard Interdependence” says working-class contexts tend to foster norms of hard interdependence. The passages do not establish the same point for African American contexts, so that example is not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Brannon, Markus, & Taylor, 2015 source
- Findingown data
In the U.S., being independent predicts not using food as a way to cope with stress (Study 2a).
“and not using food as a way to cope with stress (Study 2a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Japan, being interdependent predicts eating a healthy diet (Studies 1 and 2b).
“In Japan, a culture that prioritizes and emphasizes interdependence, being interdependent predicts eating a healthy diet (Studies 1 and 2b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In large probability samples of middle-aged adults from the U.S. and Japan, fit with the culturally normative way of being predicts healthy eating.
“Using large probability samples of middle-aged adults in the U.S. and Japan, we show that fitting with the culturally normative way of being predicts healthy eating.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S., being independent predicts eating a healthy diet, measured by an index of fish, protein, fruit, vegetables, reverse-coded sugared beverages, and reverse-coded high fat meat consumption (Study 1).
“In the U.S, a culture that prioritizes and emphasizes independence, being independent predicts eating a healthy diet (an index of fish, protein, fruit, vegetables, reverse-coded sugared beverages, and reverse-coded high fat meat consumption; Study 1)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Culture predicted healthier eating habits.
“In Model 2, independent self-construal and culture predicted healthier eating habits, b = 0.11, S.E. = 0.03, t(1401) = 3.40, p = .001, 95% CI = [.05, .18], rp = .09 for independent self-construal; and b = −0.15, S.E. = 0.06, t(1401) = 2.45, p = .014, 95% CI = [−.27, −.03], rp = −.07, for culture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Japanese respondents had higher HDL cholesterol levels than American respondents.
“Finally, Japanese respondents had lower WHRs than American respondents, t(1414) = 11.11, p < .001 and higher HDL cholesterol levels, t(1406) = 13.73, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Female respondents reported eating healthier.
“First, in Model 1, older, female, and more educated respondents reported eating healthier, b = 0.019, S.E. = 0.002, t(1404) = 8.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.015, .023], rp = .23 for age; b = 0.45, S.E. = 0.05, t(1404) = 8.61, p < .001, 95% CI = [.34, .55], rp = .22 for gender; and b = 0.09, S.E. = 0.02, t(1404) = 5.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.06, .13], rp = .16 for education.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
More educated respondents reported eating healthier.
“First, in Model 1, older, female, and more educated respondents reported eating healthier, b = 0.019, S.E. = 0.002, t(1404) = 8.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.015, .023], rp = .23 for age; b = 0.45, S.E. = 0.05, t(1404) = 8.61, p < .001, 95% CI = [.34, .55], rp = .22 for gender; and b = 0.09, S.E. = 0.02, t(1404) = 5.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.06, .13], rp = .16 for education.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The healthy eating index predicted higher HDL cholesterol.
“The healthy eating index predicted lower WHR, b = −0.05, S.E. = 0.02, t(1399) = 2.81, p = .005, and higher HDL cholesterol, b = 0.02, S.E. = 0.003, t(1392) = 5.72, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 2a, people higher in independent self-construal used food to cope with stress less.
“In Model 2, independent self-construal predicted less use of food to cope with stress, b = −.24, S.E. = 0.04, t(2527) = −6.24, p < .001, 95% CI = [−.31, −.16], rp = −.12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 1, positive relations with others mediated the relationship between interdependence and healthy eating.
“In Japan, the bootstrap procedure testing positive relations with others as a mediator of the interdependence – healthy eating relationship yielded a 95% bcCI that did not include zero (.02, .13).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 1, independent self-construal predicted healthier eating.
“independent self-construal predicted healthier eating in the U.S., simple slope b = 0.16, S.E. = 0.04, t(1399) = 4.18, p < .001, 95% CI = [.08, .23], rp = .11”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 2b, autonomy did not mediate the association between interdependence and healthy eating.
“We also tested whether autonomy mediated the link between interdependence and healthy eating, but the 95% bcCI included zero (−.08, 0.004), suggesting that it did not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Findingown data
Japanese respondents consumed more fish than American respondents.
“Regarding eating behavior, Japanese respondents consumed more non-meat protein, t(1416) = 4.44, p < .001, fish, t(1416) = 16.79, p < .001, and sugared beverages t(1416) = 4.22, p < .001, than American respondents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 1, interdependent self-construal predicted healthier eating.
“interdependent self-construal predicted healthier eating habits in Japan, simple slope b = 0.22, S.E. = 0.08, t(1399) = 2.77, p = .006, 95% CI = [.06, .38], rp = .07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
Culture moderated the association between independent self-construal and healthy eating.
“Importantly, those associations between self-construal and healthy eating habits were moderated by culture in Model 3, b = 0.21, S.E. = 0.08, t(1399) = 2.56, p = .011, 95% CI = [.05, .36], rp = .07 for the culture × independence interaction; and b = −0.22, S.E. = 0.09, t(1399) = 2.30, p = .021, 95% CI = [−.40, −.03], rp = −.06 for the culture × interdependence interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The associations between the healthy eating index and health markers did not differ across cultures.
“Neither interaction was significant, ps > .5, suggesting that the healthy eating index predicts health markers equally across cultures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
American respondents scored higher on autonomy than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents also scored higher on independent self-construal, t(1414) = 10.12, p < .001, interdependent self-construal, t(1414) = 11.40, autonomy, t(1415) = 17.46, p < .001, and positive relations with others, t(1415) = 17.40, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 2a, when autonomy and positive relations were entered simultaneously, both mediated the relationship between independence and use of food to cope.
“When both autonomy and positive relations were entered simultaneously, both mediated the relationship between independence and the use of food to cope, 95% bcCI for autonomy (−.16, −.09), 95% bcCI for positive relations (−.08, −.03).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Findingown data
American respondents consumed high fat meat more frequently than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents consumed high fat meat more frequently, t(1416) = 3.43, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 2a, autonomy mediated the association between independence and using food to cope.
“This procedure yielded a 95% bcCI that did not include zero (−.20, −.13), suggesting that autonomy does mediate the association between independence and using food to cope.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 1, autonomy did not mediate the relationship between interdependence and healthy eating.
“The corresponding bootstrap analysis, testing autonomy as a mediator, yielded a 95% bcCI that included zero (−.13, .01). Thus, the indirect effect was not significant for autonomy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 1, autonomy mediated the relationship between independence and healthy eating.
“In the U.S., the bootstrap procedure testing autonomy as a mediator of the independence – healthy eating relationship yielded a 95% bcCI that did not include zero (.01, .09).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 2a, people higher in interdependent self-construal used food to cope with stress more.
“while interdependent self-construal predicted more use of food to cope with stress, b = .20, S.E. = 0.04, t(2527) = 5.27, p < .001, 95% CI = [.12, .27], rp = .10.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 2b, interdependent self-construal marginally predicted healthier eating.
“In Model 2, interdependent self-construal marginally predicted healthier eating, while independent self-construal did not, b = 0.10, S.E. = 0.06, t(301) = 1.76, p = .079, 95% CI = [−.10, .11], rp = .10 for interdependent self-construal”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 1, social class differences did not explain the cultural moderation of the associations between self-construal and healthy eating.
“Thus, although social class tends to predict healthier eating in the U.S. than in Japan, such a relationship does not explain the cultural moderation of associations between self-construal and healthy eating.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 1, positive relations with others did not mediate the relationship between independence and healthy eating.
“The equivalent bootstrap analysis, testing positive relations with others as a mediator, yielded a 95% bcCI that included zero (−.01, .03), suggesting that positive relations did not mediate the link.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Findingown data
Japanese respondents consumed more non-meat protein than American respondents.
“Regarding eating behavior, Japanese respondents consumed more non-meat protein, t(1416) = 4.44, p < .001, fish, t(1416) = 16.79, p < .001, and sugared beverages t(1416) = 4.22, p < .001, than American respondents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
American respondents scored higher on positive relations with others than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents also scored higher on independent self-construal, t(1414) = 10.12, p < .001, interdependent self-construal, t(1414) = 11.40, autonomy, t(1415) = 17.46, p < .001, and positive relations with others, t(1415) = 17.40, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 2b, independent self-construal did not predict healthier eating.
“and b = .004, S.E. = 0.05, t(301) = 0.08, p = .94, 95% CI = [−.10, .11], rp = .005 for independent self-construal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
Independent self-construal predicted healthier eating habits.
“In Model 2, independent self-construal and culture predicted healthier eating habits, b = 0.11, S.E. = 0.03, t(1401) = 3.40, p = .001, 95% CI = [.05, .18], rp = .09 for independent self-construal; and b = −0.15, S.E. = 0.06, t(1401) = 2.45, p = .014, 95% CI = [−.27, −.03], rp = −.07, for culture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 1, interdependent self-construal did not predict healthier eating.
“but not in the U.S., simple slope b = −0.05, S.E. = 0.07, t(1399) = 0.69, p = .49, 95% CI = [−.19, .09], rp = −.02”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
The healthy eating index predicted lower waist-to-hip ratio.
“The healthy eating index predicted lower WHR, b = −0.05, S.E. = 0.02, t(1399) = 2.81, p = .005, and higher HDL cholesterol, b = 0.02, S.E. = 0.003, t(1392) = 5.72, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the U.S. sample of Study 2a, positive relations with others mediated the association between independence and using food to cope.
“This procedure yielded a 95% bcCI that did not include zero (−.10, −0.06), suggesting that positive relations with others also mediates the association between independence and using food to cope.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Findingown data
Older respondents reported eating healthier.
“First, in Model 1, older, female, and more educated respondents reported eating healthier, b = 0.019, S.E. = 0.002, t(1404) = 8.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.015, .023], rp = .23 for age; b = 0.45, S.E. = 0.05, t(1404) = 8.61, p < .001, 95% CI = [.34, .55], rp = .22 for gender; and b = 0.09, S.E. = 0.02, t(1404) = 5.97, p < .001, 95% CI = [.06, .13], rp = .16 for education.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the Japanese sample of Study 1, independent self-construal did not predict healthier eating.
“but not in Japan, simple slope b = 0.05, S.E. = 0.05, t(1399) = 0.11, p = .91, 95% CI = [−.09, .10], rp = .003”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Findingown data
Culture moderated the association between interdependent self-construal and healthy eating.
“Importantly, those associations between self-construal and healthy eating habits were moderated by culture in Model 3, b = 0.21, S.E. = 0.08, t(1399) = 2.56, p = .011, 95% CI = [.05, .36], rp = .07 for the culture × independence interaction; and b = −0.22, S.E. = 0.09, t(1399) = 2.30, p = .021, 95% CI = [−.40, −.03], rp = −.06 for the culture × interdependence interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Japanese respondents consumed more sugared beverages than American respondents.
“Regarding eating behavior, Japanese respondents consumed more non-meat protein, t(1416) = 4.44, p < .001, fish, t(1416) = 16.79, p < .001, and sugared beverages t(1416) = 4.22, p < .001, than American respondents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
American respondents scored higher on independent self-construal than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents also scored higher on independent self-construal, t(1414) = 10.12, p < .001, interdependent self-construal, t(1414) = 11.40, autonomy, t(1415) = 17.46, p < .001, and positive relations with others, t(1415) = 17.40, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Japanese respondents had lower waist-to-hip ratios than American respondents.
“Finally, Japanese respondents had lower WHRs than American respondents, t(1414) = 11.11, p < .001 and higher HDL cholesterol levels, t(1406) = 13.73, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In mainstream America, independence is the foundational schema for thought and behavior and the signature of nearly all that is good, true, and beautiful.
“In mainstream America, independence is the foundational schema for thought and behavior and the signature of nearly all that is good, true, and beautiful (Shweder, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shweder, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In Japan, the traditional diet is very healthy.
“In Japan, the traditional diet is very healthy (Willett, 1994), and the country has increasingly focused on maintaining and promoting healthy eating amid rising concerns about the Western dietary influences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Willett, 1994 source
- Premisecitation
The U.S. and Japan are cultural contexts that promote different normatively appropriate ways to think, feel, and act.
“The U.S. and Japan are cultural contexts that promote different normatively appropriate ways to think, feel, and act (Kitayama, Duffy, & Uchida, 2007; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kitayama, Duffy, & Uchida, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Markus & Kitayama, 1991 source
- Premisecitation
In the U.S., examples such as the First Lady's "Let's Move!" campaign, menu sections highlighting healthier options at national chains, and the domination of healthy cookbooks on bestseller lists suggest that healthy eating is a valued goal.
“However, examples such as the First Lady’s “Let’s Move!” campaign (http://www.letsmove.gov/eat-healthy); the addition of menu sections that highlight healthier options at national chains such as Applebee’s, Ruby Tuesday, and Chili’s; and the domination of healthy cookbooks on bestseller lists (Bean, 2014) suggest that healthy eating is a valued goal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bean, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
People whose behavior fits well with their cultural context's norms tend to experience good or pleasant feelings.
“People whose behavior fits well with their cultural context’s norms tend to experience good or pleasant feelings (De Leersnyder et al., 2014; Fulmer et al., 2010; Kitayama & Markus, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
People in the U.S. and Europe who set their own personal standards and report greater autonomous motivation are more likely to engage in health-promoting practices such as exercising, eating nutritious food, and adhering to recommended medication use.
“For example, people in the U.S. and Europe who set their own personal standards and report greater autonomous motivation are more likely to engage in a range of health-promoting practices such as exercising, eating nutritious food, and adhering to recommended medication use (Ng et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ng et al., 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Fit, attunement, or a match between individuals and their environment or cultures confers benefits in many domains.
“Fit, attunement, or a match between individuals and their environment or cultures confers benefits in many domains (e.g., O’Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991; Stephens, Markus, & Fryberg, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
In Japan, mealtimes are sites for the cultivation of interdependence.
“For example, mealtimes are sites for the cultivation of interdependence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The independent self-construal measure had reliability α = .94 for Americans and .62 for Japanese.
“The independent self-construal measure included 7 items (e.g., “I am comfortable with being singled out for praise or rewards”; αs = .94 for Americans, .62 for Japanese).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given
In both cultural contexts, eating behavior is closely bound up with the culturally normative way of being.
“Furthermore, in both cultural contexts, eating behavior is closely bound up with the culturally normative way of being.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
In the U.S., construing oneself as interdependent, a manner not emphasized by the cultural context, may have negative implications for healthy behaviors.
“This suggests that construing oneself in a manner that the cultural context does not emphasize and support may sometimes have negative implications for healthy behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Premisecitation
Over 90% of Japanese children participate in a longstanding national lunch program deemed essential for fostering healthy minds and bodies.
“At school, over 90% of Japanese children participate in a longstanding national lunch program deemed essential for fostering healthy minds and bodies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012
- Premisecitation
Japan has increasingly focused on maintaining and promoting healthy eating amid rising concerns about Western dietary influences.
“In Japan, the traditional diet is very healthy (Willett, 1994), and the country has increasingly focused on maintaining and promoting healthy eating amid rising concerns about the Western dietary influences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Children consumed more vegetables during lunch when cafeteria staff gave them a choice of which vegetable to eat.
“For example, one study found that children consumed more vegetables during lunch when cafeteria staff gave them a choice of which vegetable to eat (Perry et al., 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Perry et al., 2004 source
- Interpretationown data
The same healthy behavior is predicted by different psychosocial factors in different cultural contexts.
“Although a large literature shows that social and psychological characteristics influence behavior, we have shown that the same healthy behavior is predicted by different psychosocial factors in different cultural contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Study design and conductcitation
The interdependent self-construal measure had reliability α = .96 for Americans and .71 for Japanese.
“The interdependent self-construal measure included 10 items (e.g., “If people in my family fail, I feel responsible”; αs = .96 for Americans, .71 for Japanese; Singelis, 1994).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Singelis, 1994 source
- Premisecitation
The Japanese guidelines emphasize other facets of interdependence such as balance and self-improvement.
“The guidelines also emphasize other facets of interdependence such as balance and self-improvement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The Japanese Farm Ministry's site offers guidelines that advise people to eat healthier by cherishing a close family atmosphere while preparing and eating meals.
“The Japanese Farm Ministry’s site offers guidelines (“shishinn”) that advise people to eat healthier by “cherishing a close family atmosphere” while preparing and eating meals (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
In the U.S., mealtimes are sites for the cultivation of independence-for taking control, making choices, and expressing personal preferences.
“Mealtimes are sites for the cultivation of independence—for taking control, making choices, and expressing personal preferences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Different psychosocial factors mediate the relationship between self-construal and healthy eating in the U.S. and Japan.
“Furthermore, reflecting the types of agency prevalent in these cultural contexts, different psychosocial factors mediate the relationships in the two cultural contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Interpretationreasoning
To understand whether cultural fit promotes a specific healthy behavior, it is important to recognize the social meaning attached to that behavior.
“Together, the analyses of independence, interdependence, and multiple behaviors (i.e., eating, smoking, sleeping) suggest that in order to understand whether cultural fit will promote a specific healthy behavior, it is important to recognize the social meaning attached to that behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Western theories and research demonstrate that the perception and possibility of autonomous control, rather than external constraint, enhance intrinsic motivation.
“These findings draw on Western theories and research, which demonstrate how the perception and possibility of autonomous control, rather than external constraint, enhance intrinsic motivation (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985; Hendy, Williams, & Camise, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisereasoning
In the mainstream U.S., cultural ideas and practices foster an association between healthy eating and the independence of the self.
“In the mainstream U.S., cultural ideas and practices foster an association between healthy eating and the independence of the self.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
What shapes or motivates behavior is culturally dependent.
“This idea —that what shapes or motivates behavior is culturally dependent— is a key insight for anyone interested in understanding or intervening to change behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Premisereasoning
In Japan, nutritionally healthy eating is also normatively good, unlike smoking or sleeping.
“With eating, in Japan, what is “good” in the sense of being nutritionally healthy is also “good” in the sense of being descriptively or prescriptively normative. This is not the case with smoking or sleeping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
The findings are correlational.
“Notably, these findings are correlational.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
In Japan, interdependent people eat a healthier diet in part because they emphasize important relationships.
“These findings thus point to the robustness of the conclusion that people who are interdependent in Japan eat a healthier diet, in part because of their emphasis on important relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
- Premisecitation
In Japan, the association between healthy food and realizing the interdependence of the self is culturally shaped and grounded in multiple ideas and practices that reflect and foster this link.
“In Japan, the association between healthy food and realizing the interdependence of the self is culturally shaped and grounded in multiple ideas and practices that reflect and foster this link.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Across the U.S. and Japanese samples, cultural fit-independence in the U.S. and interdependence in Japan-is associated with eating a healthier diet.
“With large samples in two countries, we show that fitting in with one’s culturally mandated way of being—being independent in the U.S. or interdependent in Japan— is associated with eating a healthy diet.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Rests on an assumption: The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
- Interpretationreasoning
The greater prevalence of unhealthy food and obesity in the U.S. relative to Japan may be explained by understanding independence and interdependence.
“In addition to the light it sheds on within country differences, understanding independence and interdependence may help to explain the greater prevalence of unhealthy food and obesity in the U.S., relative to Japan (World Health Organization, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites World Health Organization, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Within Japan, older people tend to engage in healthy eating habits more than younger people.
“Within Japan, older people tend to engage in healthy eating habits more than younger people (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
The findings support culturally divergent understandings of how to eat well.
“Our findings offer data to support these culturally divergent understandings of how to eat well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
- Premisecitation
The interdependent Japanese practice of eating at mealtimes rather than when one personally chooses may be a healthier way of eating.
“Furthermore, the interdependent Japanese practice of eating when the situation calls for it (i.e., at mealtimes), rather than when one personally chooses, may be a healthier way of eating (Hawks, Madanat, Merrill, Goudy, Miyagawa, 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hawks, Madanat, Merrill, Goudy, Miyagawa, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Japan places especially great importance on adherence to norms.
“Because Japan is a culture that places especially great importance on adherence to norms (Gelfand et al., 2011)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gelfand et al., 2011 source
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
- May combine two claims. 18
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationParents of picky eaters are advised to avoid a battle of wills and to foster children's independence by regularly exposing children to multiple healthy options so that children eventually select them autonomously.
“Parents of “picky eaters” are advised to avoid a “battle of wills” and to foster children’s independence by regularly exposing children to multiple healthy options so that children eventually select them autonomously (e.g., Carruth et al., 1998; Galloway, Fiorito, Francis & Birch, 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Carruth et al., 1998 source
- cites Galloway, Fiorito, Francis & Birch, 2006 source
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that pressure to eat can reduce intake and elicit negative reactions, while repeated exposure can increase intake of initially rejected foods. This supports avoiding a feeding struggle and continuing exposure. The paper does not advise offering multiple healthy options to foster independence or say that children will eventually select those options autonomously. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationUsing food to cope with stress is linked to eating high-fat and sugary foods, obesity, and poor health.
“Using food to cope with stress has been linked to eating high fat and sugary foods, obesity, and poor health (Epel et al., 2004; Oliver et al., 2000; Tsenkova, Boylan, & Ryff, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationWorking-class contexts in the Western world are associated with interdependence and with less healthy eating.
“Because working class contexts have also been associated with interdependence (Stephens et al., 2014) and less healthy eating habits (e.g., Darmon & Drewnowski, 2008), in the Western world”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Stephens et al., 2014 source
- cites Darmon & Drewnowski, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe relationships between self-construal and healthy eating are mediated by autonomy in the U.S. and by positive relations with others in Japan.
“Further, reflecting the types of agency that are prevalent in each context, these relationships are mediated by autonomy in the U.S. and positive relations with others in Japan.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone givenAmerican respondents scored higher on interdependent self-construal than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents also scored higher on independent self-construal, t(1414) = 10.12, p < .001, interdependent self-construal, t(1414) = 11.40, autonomy, t(1415) = 17.46, p < .001, and positive relations with others, t(1415) = 17.40, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAmerican respondents had more education than Japanese respondents.
“American respondents had more education than Japanese respondents, t(1409) = 5.58, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
PremisecitationCultural norms provide guidelines about the right, true, and good ways to live and to be.
“Cultural norms provide guidelines about the “right,” “true,” and “good” ways to live and to be (Shweder, 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shweder, 2003 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn mainstream Japan, interdependence is the foundational schema for thought and action and the mark of what is good, true, and beautiful.
“In mainstream Japan, however, interdependence is the foundational schema for thought and action and the mark of what is “good,” “true,” and “beautiful” (Doi, 1973; Lebra, 2004; Markus & Kitayama, 2003; Markus & Conner, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Doi, 1973
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Lebra, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Markus & Kitayama, 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Japan, family support predicts adherence to cancer screening recommendations, reduced alcohol and tobacco use, and consumption of a traditional diet.
“Consistent with this hypothesis, in Japan, family support predicts adherence to cancer screening recommendations, reduced alcohol and tobacco use, and consumption of a traditional diet (Honda & Kagawa-Singer, 2006; Tsutsumi, Tsutsumi, Kayaba, & Igarashi, 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenBoth mainstream U.S. and Japan view healthy eating as the right and good way to behave.
“Importantly, both mainstream U.S. and Japan view healthy eating as the “right” and “good” way to behave.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Korea, elderly people exercised more and ate healthier when they lived with family rather than alone.
“Similarly, a study in Korea, another interdependent cultural context, found that elderly people exercised more and ate healthier when they lived with family, rather than alone (Sok & Yun, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sok & Yun, 2011 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Western cultural contexts, having a sense of autonomy predicts healthy behavior, whereas in East Asian cultural contexts, strong relationships do so.
“However, some work suggests that having a sense of autonomy, which is emphasized in independent cultural contexts, predicts healthy behavior in Western cultural contexts, whereas strong relationships, which are emphasized in interdependent cultural contexts, do so in East Asian cultural contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ng et al., 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningAll variables were self-reported, which could reflect participants' ideal rather than actual eating habits, or their perceptions of independence or interdependence rather than observable behavioral differences.
“Another limitation is that the variables were all self-reported, which could reflect participants’ ideal, rather than actual, eating habits, or their perceptions of their independence or interdependence, rather than observable behavioral differences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationJapan recently added new initiatives to a longstanding school lunch program to help schoolchildren develop proper, nutritious eating habits.
“For example, Japan recently added new initiatives to a longstanding school lunch program to help schoolchildren develop proper, nutritious eating habits (Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningHDL levels were assayed both in Tokyo and in a diagnostic testing lab in the U.S. to ensure comparability with American participants.
“HDL levels were assayed both in Tokyo and in a diagnostic testing lab in the U.S. (Meriter Lab, Madison, WI) to ensure that the values would be comparable to those obtained for American participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe healthy eating index was standardized within each culture to control for measurement differences.
“To control for these measurement differences, we standardized the healthy eating index within each culture (see below).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Japanese school lunch program aims to enrich school life and promote a spirit of cooperation by instilling proper dietary habits.
“The program aims “to enrich school life and promote a spirit of cooperation by instilling proper dietary habits” (Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012, p. 155).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe positive relations with others subscale had reliability α = .78 for Americans and .79 for Japanese.
“Responses were summed to compute an autonomy score (αs = .69 for Americans, .71 Japanese) and a positive relations with others score (αs = .78 for Americans, .79 Japanese).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIndependence emphasizes individual expression and going against the norm, leaving room for a wider range of acceptable behaviors than interdependence, which involves meeting others' expectations.
“Specifically, independence, which emphasizes individual expression and the norm of going against the norm, leaves room for a wider range of behaviors to be acceptable than does a norm of interdependence, which involves meeting others’ expectations of what is “good” and “right” (Gelfand et al., 2011; Riemer et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe U.S. Department of Agriculture's website offers guidelines that encourage people to eat healthy by making smart choices and taking control of what they eat.
“The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (2011) website www.choosemyplate.gov offers guidelines that encourage people to eat healthy by making smart choices and “tak[ing] control” of what they eat.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe autonomy subscale had reliability α = .69 for Americans and .71 for Japanese.
“Responses were summed to compute an autonomy score (αs = .69 for Americans, .71 Japanese) and a positive relations with others score (αs = .78 for Americans, .79 Japanese).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAt lunchtime, Japanese children serve each other, arrange and clean the tables, learn proper mealtime greetings and manners, and develop a sense of gratitude.
“At lunchtime, children serve each other, arrange and clean the tables, learn the proper mealtime greetings and manners, and “develop a sense of gratitude” (Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012, p. 155).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tanaka & Miyoshi, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe differences in self-construal and well-being scores likely reflect Americans' tendency to perceive the self more positively than East Asians do and participants' likely use of their cultural group as a reference.
“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Japan, sleeping more than others can signal that one is not diligent, and smoking may be seen as traditional or normatively appropriate, especially among men.
“In Japan, sleeping more than others can signal that one is not diligent (i.e., has not stayed up to work or study; Steger, 2006), and smoking may be seen as traditional or normatively appropriate, especially among men.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Steger, 2006 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOther unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and getting little sleep are more common in Japan than in the U.S. or other developed countries.
“Notably, although the Japanese diet is very healthy, other unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and getting little sleep are more common in Japan than in the U.S. or other developed countries (Ng et al., 2014; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ng et al., 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf cultural fit predicts a greater sense of culturally appropriate agency, it should facilitate at least some other types of good or healthy behavior.
“If cultural fit predicts a greater sense of culturally appropriate agency, as we have argued, it should facilitate at least some other types of “good” or “healthy” behavior as well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe independent American emphasis on autonomy and personal responsibility likely underlies views that blame obese people and see restricting unhealthy food as paternalistic.
“The independent American emphasis on autonomy and personal responsibility likely underlies these views (Brownell, 1991; Savani, Stephens, & Markus, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Brownell, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Savani, Stephens, & Markus, 2011 source
The paper relies on this without support.
The links between independent and interdependent models of the self and healthy eating in the U.S. and Japan have not yet been explored.
“Research has not yet explored the links between independent and interdependent models of the self and healthy eating in the U.S. and Japan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The self-construal, autonomy, positive relations, and healthy eating measures are equivalent and valid across the U.S. and Japanese cultural contexts.
“These items were different from those used in Study 1 but, like those in Study 1, they were drawn from the Singelis’s (1994) Self-Construal Scales.”
“All measures were assessed as in Study 1 (independent self-construal α = .60, interdependent self-construal: α = .72, autonomy α = .73, positive relations with others α = .60).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Self-reported eating measures reflect actual eating behavior sufficiently for the conclusions.
“Another limitation is that the variables were all self-reported, which could reflect participants’ ideal, rather than actual, eating habits, or their perceptions of their independence or interdependence, rather than observable behavioral differences.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The mediation models are correctly specified and the indirect effects indicate causal mediation.
“We used a bootstrap approach to obtain 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (bcCI) for the size of the indirect effects (Preacher & Hayes, 2008).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The food-to-cope measure and the healthy eating index capture the same underlying construct of healthy eating.
“Although the use of a different healthy eating outcome (i.e., food to cope with stress, rather than the healthy eating index) might be construed as a limitation, it can also be seen as a strength because Study 2a extends the findings among Americans from Study 1 to a new healthy eating variable.”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(1409) = 5.58reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1409) = 5.58, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1414) = 10.12reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1414) = 10.12, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1415) = 17.46reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1415) = 17.46, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1415) = 17.4reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1415) = 17.40, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1416) = 4.44reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1416) = 4.44, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1416) = 16.79reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1416) = 16.79, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1416) = 4.22reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1416) = 4.22, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1416) = 3.43reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1416) = 3.43, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1414) = 11.11reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1414) = 11.11, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1406) = 13.73reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1406) = 13.73, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1399) = 2.81reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005
“t(1399) = 2.81, p = .005”
- Consistentt(1392) = 5.72reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1392) = 5.72, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1404) = 8.97reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1404) = 8.97, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1404) = 8.61reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1404) = 8.61, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1404) = 5.97reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1404) = 5.97, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1401) = 3.4reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1401) = 3.40, p = .001”
- Consistentt(1401) = 2.45reported p = .014 · recomputed p = .014
“t(1401) = 2.45, p = .014”
- Consistentt(1399) = 2.56reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .011
“t(1399) = 2.56, p = .011”
- Consistentt(1399) = 2.3reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .022
“t(1399) = 2.30, p = .021”
- Consistentt(1399) = 4.18reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(1399) = 4.18, p < .001”
- Consistentt(1399) = 0.11reported p = .91 · recomputed p = .912
“t(1399) = 0.11, p = .91”
- Consistentt(1399) = 2.77reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“t(1399) = 2.77, p = .006”
- Consistentt(1399) = 0.69reported p = .49 · recomputed p = .490
“t(1399) = 0.69, p = .49”
- Consistentt(1398) = 2.42reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .016
“t(1398) = 2.42, p = .015”
- Consistentt(1398) = 2.39reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017
“t(1398) = 2.39, p = .017”
- Consistentt(1398) = 2.32reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .020
“t(1398) = 2.32, p = .021”
- Consistentt(2529) = -3.69reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(2529) = −3.69, p < .001”
- Consistentt(2529) = 10.4reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(2529) = 10.40, p < .001”
- Consistentt(2529) = -2.16reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .031
“t(2529) = −2.16, p = .03”
- Consistentt(2527) = -6.24reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(2527) = −6.24, p < .001”
- Consistentt(2527) = 5.27reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(2527) = 5.27, p < .001”
- Consistentt(303) = 4.74reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(303) = 4.74, p < .001”
- Consistentt(303) = 4.52reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(303) = 4.52, p < .001”
- Consistentt(303) = 2.29reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .023
“t(303) = 2.29, p = .02”
- Consistentt(301) = 1.76reported p = .079 · recomputed p = .079
“t(301) = 1.76, p = .079”
- Consistentt(301) = 0.08reported p = .94 · recomputed p = .936
“t(301) = 0.08, p = .94”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Japanese interdependence confidence interval is centered on the wrong value
MajorIn Study 2b, the reported confidence interval has a midpoint of 0.005, far from the reported coefficient of 0.10. Its endpoints are inconsistent with the stated regression estimate.
Reported 0.1 · recomputed 0.005
“b = 0.10, S.E. = 0.06, t(301) = 1.76, p = .079, 95% CI = [−.10, .11], rp = .10 for interdependent self-construal”
Japanese independence slope conflicts with its test statistic
MajorIn Study 1, the reported slope divided by its standard error is 1.00, not the reported t value of 0.11. The discrepancy affects whether this result is interpreted as near zero.
Reported 0.11 · recomputed 1
“but not in Japan, simple slope b = 0.05, S.E. = 0.05, t(1399) = 0.11, p = .91, 95% CI = [−.09, .10], rp = .003.”
Study 2b names the wrong hypothesized predictor
MinorThe Study 2b results describe independence as the predicted association, whereas the paper states that its hypothesis for Japan concerns interdependence.
“To test our first hypothesis that independence would predict healthier eating, we ran a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses (Table 4).”
“We hypothesized that people who are independent in the U.S. and interdependent in Japan would eat a healthier diet.”
Cites
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.40.3.879 · Cited by 34,117 · see citing works
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior
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The role of health behaviors in links between stress and epigenetic aging
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The Influence of Food on Social Behavior
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The impact of reverse wording on cross-cultural comparisons of food-related attitudes
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- Authors
- Levine, C. S., Miyamoto, Y., Markus, H. R., Rigotti, A., Boylan, J. M., Park, J., Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., Kawakami, N., Coe, C. L., Love, G. D., & Ryff, C. D.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (CL)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Tokyo Woman's Christian University (JP)
- The University of Tokyo (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Levine, Cynthia S.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-08-20
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1335-1348
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- PMC
- PMC5023492
- OpenAlex
- W2515188070
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 9.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000427)
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG027343, P01AG020166, U19AG051426)
- National Center for Research Resources (M01RR023942, UL1RR025011, M01RR000865)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- healthy eating, cultural values, independence, interdependence, autonomy, positive relations with others, stress coping, meat consumption, cultural differences, health behavior, middle-aged adults, health promotion interventions
- MeSH terms
- Diet, Healthy, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Japan, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, United States, Young Adult, Social Norms
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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