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Retinoids and Retinal Diseases
Open accessAbstract
Recent progress in molecular understanding of the retinoid cycle in mammalian retina stems from painstaking biochemical reconstitution studies supported by natural or engineered animal models with known genetic lesions and studies of humans with specific genetic blinding diseases. Structural and membrane biology have been used to detect critical retinal enzymes and proteins and their substrates and ligands, placing them in a cellular context. These studies have been supplemented by analytical chemistry methods that have identified small molecules by their spectral characteristics, often in conjunction with the evaluation of models of animal retinal disease. It is from this background that rational therapeutic interventions to correct genetic defects or environmental insults are identified. Thus, most presently accepted modulators of the retinoid cycle already have demonstrated promising results in animal models of retinal degeneration. These encouraging signs indicate that some human blinding diseases can be alleviated by pharmacological interventions.
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“Retinitis pigmentosa can be caused by dysfunctional LRAT, mutant RPE65, and P23H mutant opsin [52,58,59].”
From Vitamin A Transporters in Visual Function: A Mini Review on Membrane Receptors for Dietary Vitamin A Uptake, Storage, and Transport to the Eye (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
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“The main visual chromophore responsible for the vision that binds to opsin in photoreceptors is 11-cis retinal, a metabolite of vitamin A, which was discovered to be important for vision in the late 1960s by George Wald, who also elucidated the visual or retinoid cycle involved with the metabolism of vitamin A in visual function [52].”
From Vitamin A Transporters in Visual Function: A Mini Review on Membrane Receptors for Dietary Vitamin A Uptake, Storage, and Transport to the Eye (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
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“11-cis retinal is transported from the RPE into the photoreceptors by interphotoreceptor RBP (IRBP) and binds to opsin in either the rods or cones (forming rhodopsin or cone opsin, respectively) [52].”
From Vitamin A Transporters in Visual Function: A Mini Review on Membrane Receptors for Dietary Vitamin A Uptake, Storage, and Transport to the Eye (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
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Citations
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Could Vitamins Help in the Fight Against COVID-19?
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“The site of action is throughout the tissues, where both retinol and β-carotene are oxidized to retinal and retinoic acid, which are essential for the variety of biological roles of vitamin A [26].”
BackgroundCarotenoid biofortification in crop plants: citius, altius, fortius
Zheng, X., Giuliano, G., & Al‐Babili, S. (2020) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids · doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2020.158664 · Cited by 116
“18 65 kDa protein (RPE65) a retinoid isomerohydrolase required for the vision cycle [123].”
BackgroundThe Role of Vitamin A in Retinal Diseases
Sajovic, J., Meglič, A., Glavač, D., Markelj, Š., Hawlina, M., & Fakin, A. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23031014 · Cited by 109
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Ronning, K. E., Karlen, S. J., Miller, E. B., & Burns, M. E. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-41141-0 · Cited by 88
Storti, F., Klee, K., Todorova, V., Steiner, R., Othman, A., van der Velde-Visser, S. D., Samardzija, M., Meneau, I., Barben, M., Karademir, D., et al. (2019) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.45100 · Cited by 99
“In addition to CEs, the abundance of REs was increased in our model, suggesting that lack of Abca1 and Abcg1 not only reduced lipid efflux but also affected intracellular handling of REs as intermediates of the visual cycle (Kiser and Palczewski, 2016).”
BackgroundTarau, I., Berlin, A., Curcio, C. A., & Ach, T. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20143578 · Cited by 89
“, re-isomerization from all-trans-retinal to 11-cis-retinal [4].”
Shedding new light on the generation of the visual chromophore
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Self-citationHuman aging and disease: Lessons from age-related macular degeneration
Luu, J. C., & Palczewski, K. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1721033115 · Cited by 88
Self-citationRetinoids in the visual cycle: role of the retinal G protein-coupled receptor
Choi, E. H., Daruwalla, A., Suh, S., Leinonen, H., & Palczewski, K. (2020) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1194/jlr.tr120000850 · Cited by 76
“and retinoid-binding proteins could help to explain why patients suffering from different types of retinal dystrophies, thought to be attributed to a deficiency in one of these proteins, can show either disparate or overlapping phenotypes (36, 94, 109, 110).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHyttinen, J. M. T., Kannan, R., Felszeghy, S., Niittykoski, M., Salminen, A., & Kaarniranta, K. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20225800 · Cited by 70
“It is interesting that all-trans-retinol, the “end-product” of the visual cycle, is transferred from POS to RPE to be recharged [13].”
BackgroundPhotic generation of 11-cis-retinal in bovine retinal pigment epithelium
Zhang, J., Choi, E. H., Tworak, A., Salom, D., Leinonen, H., Sander, C. L., Hoang, T. V., Handa, J. T., Blackshaw, S., Palczewska, G., et al. (2019) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.ra119.011169 · Cited by 65
Self-citationVisual cycle proteins: Structure, function, and roles in human retinal disease
Tsin, A. T. C., Betts-Obregon, B. S., & Grigsby, J. G. (2018) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.aw118.003228 · Cited by 69
“Although the use of retinoid isomers and visual cycle inhibitors has been shown to be effective in research studies (9), no pharmaceutical treatments are available or currently approved for retinal diseases such as LCA or STGD.”
BackgroundRDH12 Mutations Cause a Severe Retinal Degeneration With Relatively Spared Rod Function
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“Vitamin A is crucial for both spermatogenesis and vision and its local storage is integral to these processes [69,70].”
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“Retinitis pigmentosa can be caused by dysfunctional LRAT, mutant RPE65, and P23H mutant opsin [52,58,59].”
InfluentialMicroglia Activation and Inflammation During the Death of Mammalian Photoreceptors
Karlen, S. J., Miller, E. B., & Burns, M. E. (2020) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-121219-081730 · Cited by 58
Vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids
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Molecular components affecting ocular carotenoid and retinoid homeostasis
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Noninvasive two-photon optical biopsy of retinal fluorophores
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“In this study we used Abca4Rdh8 mice which have mutations in the ABCA4 transporter and a retinol dehydrogenase that result in elevated levels of fluorescent diretinoid-pyridiniumethanolamine (A2E) as well as Rpe65 mice which carry a mutation in a critical retinoid isomerase and replicate the human form of Leber congen…”
MethodSelf-citationPathways and disease-causing alterations in visual chromophore production for vertebrate vision
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“Retinoic acid (RA) signalling is required in postnatal and adult life where it has various roles which include: neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, learning and memory (reviewed [1,2]) and circadian rhythms and seasonality [3]; retinal gap-junction neuromodulation and rod and cone cell function, (reviewed [4]); immune…”
BackgroundProtective Effects of Flavonoids in Acute Models of Light-Induced Retinal Degeneration
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Two-photon imaging of the mammalian retina with ultrafast pulsing laser
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“Regeneration of this 11-cis isomer, a derivative of vitamin A that is needed to maintain vision, occurs through a multistep process known as the retinoid visual cycle, located in photoreceptors, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and possibly Müller cells (17).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationUnexpected molecular diversity of vertebrate nonvisual opsin Opn5
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“40,41 The Ttr gene encodes for transthyretin that transports vitamin A (retinol) and thyroxine hormone throughout the body (Fig.”
Gasdermin E mediates photoreceptor damage by all-trans-retinal in the mouse retina
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Context-dependent compensation among phosphatidylserine-recognition receptors
Penberthy, K. K., Rival, C., Shankman, L. S., Raymond, M. H., Zhang, J., Perry, J. S. A., Lee, C. S., Han, C. Z., Onengut-Gumuscu, S., Palczewski, K., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15191-1 · Cited by 30
Self-citationThe impact of lifestyle factors on myopia development: Insights and recommendations
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Rational Tuning of Visual Cycle Modulator Pharmacodynamics
Kiser, P. D., Zhang, J., Badiee, M., Kinoshita, J., Peachey, N. S., Tochtrop, G. P., & Palczewski, K. (2017) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1124/jpet.117.240721 · Cited by 28
“The origin of the residual effects on in vivo visual cycle function remains to be elucidated but these could arise from inhibition of visual cycle enzymes other than RPE65, including retinol dehydrogenases and lecithin:retinol acyltransferase (Kiser et al., 2014; Kiser and Palczewski, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationStructural biology of 11- cis- retinaldehyde production in the classical visual cycle
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Self-citationMetabolism in the Zebrafish Retina
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Natural products for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration
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“The metabolism of retinoids preserves standard status of the visual cycle and it is crucial for the health of retina (1, 2).”
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“ABBREVIATIONS: BSA, bovine serum albumin; BTP, Bis-tris propane; CM-chitosan, carboxymethyl-chitosan; DDM, dodecyl-b-D-maltoside; ERG, electroretinography; GI, gastrointestinal; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; LCA, Leber congenital amaurosis; LRAT, lecithin:retinol acyltransferase; MES, 2-(N-morpholino)e…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSolanki, A. K., Kondkar, A. A., Fogerty, J., Su, Y., Kim, S. H., Lipschutz, J. H., Nihalani, D., Perkins, B. D., & Lobo, G. P. (2020) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells9051099 · Cited by 21
“This analysis showed a 9–14-fold reduction of 11-cis retinaldehyde (11-cis RAL), all-trans retinol (all-trans ROL), and retinyl esters (RE) in rbpr2fs-muz99 mutants, compared to WT siblings at similar age (p < 0.005; Figure 8B–”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRole of carotenoids and retinoids during heart development
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Luu, J. C., Saadane, A., Leinonen, H., Choi, E. H., Gao, F., Lewandowski, D., Halabi, M., Sander, C. L., Wu, A., Wang, J. M., et al. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2221045120 · Cited by 17
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Chiang, C.-K., Tworak, A., Kevany, B. M., Xu, B., Mayne, J., Ning, Z., Figeys, D., & Palczewski, K. (2017) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m117.812677 · Cited by 17
“Its essential role in the retinoid (visual) cycle is well documented, with perturbations resulting in a wide range of retinal dystrophies (2, 3).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMechanobiological implications of age-related remodelling in the outer retina
Piskova, T., Kozyrina, A. N., & Russo, J. D. (2023) · Biomaterials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213343 · Cited by 18
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“In the present study we examined the effect of replacing Arg587 with a lysine residue since this variant (R587K) has been implicated in STGD1 (51).”
BackgroundInfluentialVancura, P., Csicsely, E., Leiser, A., Iuvone, P. M., & Spessert, R. (2018) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.18-24558 · Cited by 16
“The maintenance of vision requires the regeneration of 11cis retinal.(22,23) To meet this requirement, all-trans-retinal is reisomerized to 11-cis retinal, a process that is performed by a multistep enzyme pathway called the visual (retinoid) cycle.”
BackgroundGene Therapy for Inherited Retinal Disorders: Update on Clinical Trials
Michalakis, S., Gerhardt, M. J., Rudolph, G., Priglinger, S. G., & Priglinger, C. (2021) · Klinische Monatsblätter für Augenheilkunde · doi:10.1055/a-1384-0818 · Cited by 15
“Interestingly, the same molecules are also evaluated for the treatment of nongenetic eye disorders that are associated with accumulation of toxic retinoid cycle metabolites [3,4].”
BackgroundImpact of LCA-Associated E14L LRAT Mutation on Protein Stability and Retinoid Homeostasis
Chełstowska, S., Widjaja‐Adhi, M. A. K., Silvaroli, J. A., & Golczak, M. (2017) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00451 · Cited by 15
The Absorption, Storage, and Transport of Ocular Carotenoids and Retinoids
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“Ongoing research examines the pivotal role of carotenoids and retinoids in vision (Bernstein et al. 2016, Kiser & Palczewski 2016, Mares 2016) (Figure 1).”
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“[7,95].”
BackgroundInfluentialRetinoid analogs and polyphenols as potential therapeutics for age-related macular degeneration
Parmar, T., Ortega, J. T., & Jastrzębska, B. (2020) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1177/1535370220926938 · Cited by 14
“Thus, retinoids although critical for maintaining vision, can also trigger specific retinal pathologies when not tightly controlled.(13,14) Discovering the molecular targets and elucidating mechanisms involved in this retinal degenerative disorder is mandatory in order to develop efficient therapeutics to combat AMD.”
BackgroundLarge Benefit from Simple Things: High-Dose Vitamin A Improves RBP4-Related Retinal Dystrophy
Smirnov, V. M., Wilmet, B., Nassisi, M., Condroyer, C., Antonio, A., Andrieu, C., Devisme, C., Sancho, S., Sahel, J., Zeitz, C., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23126590 · Cited by 13
“Abnormalities in nutritional supply, storage, transport, delivery, or metabolism of retinoids are linked with a broad spectrum of developmental and degenerative diseases of the eye [13].”
BackgroundKahremany, S., Sander, C. L., Tochtrop, G. P., Kubas, A., & Palczewski, K. (2019) · Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry · doi:10.1039/c9ob01645g · Cited by 13
Self-citationHong, W., Xu, D., Song, X., Niu, B., Zhuang, Z., Lu, Y., Lei, X., Ma, R., Lü, C., Sun, N., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108803 · Cited by 13
Hofmann, L., Alexander, N. S., Sun, W., Zhang, J., Orban, T., & Palczewski, K. (2017) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00165 · Cited by 11
Self-citationNoninvasive Two-Photon Microscopy Imaging of Mouse Retina and Retinal Pigment Epithelium
Palczewska, G., Kern, T. S., & Palczewski, K. (2018) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8669-9_21 · Cited by 11
Self-citationIchsan, A. M., Bukhari, A., Lallo, S., Miskad, U. A., Dzuhry, A. A., Islam, I. C., & Muhiddin, H. S. (2022) · International Journal of Retina and Vitreous · doi:10.1186/s40942-022-00392-2 · Cited by 11
“Their propensity to form oil droplets excludes fatty acid esters from circulation [17].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe PLAAT family as phospholipid-related enzymes
Uyama, T., Sasaki, S., Sikder, M. M., Okada-Iwabu, M., & Ueda, N. (2025) · Progress in Lipid Research · doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2025.101331 · Cited by 10
Mustafi, D., Arbabi, A., Ameri, H., & Palczewski, K. (2019) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph12020074 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, understanding that the rod retinoid pathway is disrupted in these retinal diseases has also led to pharmacologic treatment options [34,35] shown in clinical trials to benefit not only patients with RP and LCA that possess a defective Rpe65 gene, but also patients that possess a defective Lrat (Lecithin re…”
BackgroundSelf-citationSamimi, K., Pattnaik, B. R., Capowski, E. E., Saha, K., Gamm, D. M., & Skala, M. C. (2022) · Biomedical Optics Express · doi:10.1364/boe.455783 · Cited by 10
Rôżanowska, M., Czuba-Pełech, B., & Różanowski, B. (2022) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox11061132 · Cited by 12
The endocannabinoid system in the visual process
Pasquaré, S. J., Chamorro-Aguirre, E., & Gaveglio, V. L. (2022) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1016/j.jpap.2022.100159 · Cited by 9
The role of motor proteins in photoreceptor protein transport and visual function
Radhakrishnan, R., Dronamraju, V., Leung, M., Gruesen, A., Solanki, A. K., Walterhouse, S. H., Roehrich, H., Song, G. Y., Monsanto, R. D. C., Cüreoğlu, S., et al. (2022) · Ophthalmic Genetics · doi:10.1080/13816810.2022.2062391 · Cited by 10
“Mechanistically, mutations in the Rhodopsin gene causes opsin mislocalization, altered activity and inability to bind to its ligand, 11-cis retinal, endoplasmic retention and stress, and apoptosis (40,41).”
BackgroundModeling aging and retinal degeneration with mitochondrial DNA mutation burden
Sturgis, J., Singh, R., Caron, Q. R., Samuels, I. S., Shiju, T. M., Mukkara, A., Freedman, P., & Bonilha, V. L. (2024) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.14282 · Cited by 9
Rhodopsin as a Molecular Target to Mitigate Retinitis Pigmentosa
Ortega, J. T., & Jastrzębska, B. (2021) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/5584_2021_682 · Cited by 8
Bassetto, M., Zaluski, J., Li, B., Zhang, J., Badiee, M., Kiser, P. D., & Tochtrop, G. P. (2023) · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00461 · Cited by 8
Self-citationPlau, J., Morgan, C. E., Federov, Y., Banerjee, S., Adams, D., Blaner, W. S., Yu, E. W., & Golczak, M. (2023) · ACS Chemical Biology · doi:10.1021/acschembio.3c00402 · Cited by 8
Exploring the Multiligand Binding Specificity of Saposin B Reveals Two Binding Sites
Tinklepaugh, J., Smith, B. M., Hanlon, E., Zubieta, C., Bou‐Abdallah, F., & Doyle, R. P. (2017) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.7b01334 · Cited by 8
Solanki, A. K., Kondkar, A. A., Fogerty, J., Su, Y., Kim, S.-H., Lipschutz, J. H., Nihalani, D., Perkins, B. D., & Lobo, G. P. (2020) · doi:10.20944/preprints202003.0296.v1 · Cited by 20
Yu, G.-P., Gao, S., Dong, Z., Li, S., Sun, D., Zhang, N., Zhang, J., Margeivicus, S., Fu, P., Golczak, M., et al. (2021) · Bioconjugate Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.1c00043 · Cited by 7
Self-citationThe multifaceted roles of retinoids in eye development, vision, and retinal degenerative diseases
Engfer, Z. J., & Palczewski, K. (2024) · Current topics in developmental biology/Current Topics in Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.10.003 · Cited by 8
Self-citationMoon, J., Ramkumar, S., & Lintig, J. V. (2022) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddac242 · Cited by 6
Kaushik, V., Dąbrowski, M., Gessa, L., Kumar, N., & Fernandes, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1293640 · Cited by 5
Saffron Shifts the Degenerative and Inflammatory Phenotype in Photoreceptor Degeneration
Bisti, S., Marco, S. D., Maggi, M. A., Paolo, M. D., Piccardi, M., & Falsini, B. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818462-2.00014-0 · Cited by 5
Retinoid therapy restores eye-specific cortical responses in adult mice with retinal degeneration
Huh, C. Y. L., Leinonen, H., Nakayama, T., Tomasello, J., Zhang, J., Zeitoun, J. H., Peach, J. P., Halabi, M., Kiser, J. Z., Palczewski, K., et al. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.005 · Cited by 5
Self-citationIsorhodopsin: An Undervalued Visual Pigment Analog
DeGrip, W. J., & Lugtenburg, J. (2022) · Colorants · doi:10.3390/colorants1030016 · Cited by 5
Modeling Retinal Diseases Using Genetic Approaches in Mice
Maeda, A., & Maeda, T. (2018) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7720-8_3 · Cited by 5
Saposin B Binds the Lipofuscin Bisretinoid A2E and Prevents its Enzymatic and Photooxidation
Tinklepaugh, J., Smith, B. M., Nie, Y., Moody, K. J., Grohn, K., Bou‐Abdallah, F., & Doyle, R. P. (2017) · ChemPhotoChem · doi:10.1002/cptc.201700039 · Cited by 4
The physiology of dark adaptation: Progress and future directions
Fain, G., & Cornwall, M. C. (2025) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2025.101407 · Cited by 3
Radhakrishnan, R., Lor, A., Li, D., Mudaliar, D. J., & Lobo, G. P. (2024) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/67036 · Cited by 3
Clinical Photic Retinopathy: Mechanisms, Manifestations, and Misperceptions
Mainster, M. A., & Ajlan, R. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42634-7_121 · Cited by 3
Metabolomic signatures suggest altered bile acid and energy metabolism in CRB1- retinopathies
Rodriguez-Martinez, A. C., Nair, N., Skinner, J., Welch, A. A., Malka, S., & Moosajee, M. (2026) · Metabolomics · doi:10.1007/s11306-026-02415-7 · Cited by 2
“Antioxidants such as vitamins A, C, E, and carotenoids, can help limit the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), neutralize free radicals, or enhance enzyme activity to reduce oxidative stress-induced damage to the retina (Ichsan et al. 2022, Kiser and Palczewski 2016).”
Golczak, M., Moise, A. R., & Lintig, J. V. (2022) · Methods in enzymology on CD-ROM/Methods in enzymology · doi:10.1016/bs.mie.2022.05.004 · Cited by 2
Models and Algorithms for the Refinement of Therapeutic Approaches for Retinal Diseases
Friedmann, E., Dörsam, S., & Auffarth, G. U. (2023) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics13050975 · Cited by 2
Present State of Knowledge of Chemistry of Our Vision: Photoreceptor Molecules and Vision Cycle
Das, A., Das, U., & Das, A. K. (2023) · Asian Journal of Organic & Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.14233/ajomc.2022.ajomc-p409 · Cited by 2
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Stargardt disease: progress, enigmas, and prospects for therapeutic intervention
Palmgren, V. A. C., Pindwarawala, M., Hosseinzadeh, A., & Molday, R. S. (2026) · Expert Review of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1080/17469899.2026.2645188 · Cited by 1
Lipid homeostasis plays a critical role in inherited and acquired retinal diseases
Bhattacharyya, A., & Choudhary, V. (2026) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-026-10025-1 · Cited by 2
“More than 100 mutations in RPE65 have been implicated in retinal diseases, including both autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive forms, thereby underscoring the importance of RPE65 in visual chromophore homeostasis for continued visual function 29,30 .”
Functional and Structural Characterization of a Large Animal Model of RDH5 -Associated Retinopathy
Ford, L. M., Occelli, L. M., Enfield, M. E., Benjamin, N. A., Sun, K., Pasmanter, N., & Petersen‐Jones, S. M. (2026) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.15.8.2 · Cited by 1
Michalakis, S., Gerhardt, M.-J., Priglinger, C., & Priglinger, S. G. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90495-5_150-1 · Cited by 1
Vitamin A supply in the eye and establishment of the visual cycle
Bandara, S., & Lintig, J. V. (2024) · Current topics in developmental biology/Current Topics in Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.09.003 · Cited by 2
Gauthier, M.-È., Roy, S. M., Cantin, L., & Salesse, C. (2019) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.09.061 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Kiser, P. D., & Palczewski, K.
- Affiliations
- Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center (US)
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Vision Science
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-10-14
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 197-234
- ISSN
- 2374-4642 (ISSN-L)
- 2374-4650
- PMC
- PMC5132409
- OpenAlex
- W2214193457
- Semantic Scholar
- ad615b15ff3ffb755ccd22e081a92c5ab51af980
- Cited by
- 108
- References
- 175
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 0.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Vision Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (IK2BX002683)
- Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation
- Foundation Fighting Blindness
- National Institutes of Health
- National Eye Institute (U01EY025451, R01EY009339)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Development and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinoids in leukemia and cellular processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
- Keywords
- retinoids, retinoid cycle, retinal degeneration, retinal disease, vitamin A metabolism, pharmacotherapy
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Retinal Diseases, Retinoids
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