The DOI matches its Crossref record; 57 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men
Open accessAbstract
We reported, using a unilateral resistance training (RT) model, that training with high or low loads (mass per repetition) resulted in similar muscle hypertrophy and strength improvements in RT-naïve subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether the same was true in men with previous RT experience using a whole-body RT program and whether postexercise systemic hormone concentrations were related to changes in hypertrophy and strength. Forty-nine resistance-trained men (23 ± 1 yr, mean ± SE) performed 12 wk of whole-body RT. Subjects were randomly allocated into a higher-repetition (HR) group who lifted loads of ∼30-50% of their maximal strength (1RM) for 20-25 repetitions/set (n = 24) or a lower-repetition (LR) group (∼75-90% 1RM, 8-12 repetitions/set, n = 25), with all sets being performed to volitional failure. Skeletal muscle biopsies, strength testing, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scans, and acute changes in systemic hormone concentrations were examined pretraining and posttraining. In response to RT, 1RM strength increased for all exercises in both groups (P < 0.01), with only the change in bench press being significantly different between groups (HR, 9 ± 1, vs. LR, 14 ± 1 kg, P = 0.012). Fat- and bone-free (lean) body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area increased following training (P < 0.01) with no significant differences between groups. No significant correlations between the acute postexercise rise in any purported anabolic hormone and the change in strength or hypertrophy were found. In congruence with our previous work, acute postexercise systemic hormonal rises are not related to or in any way indicative of RT-mediated gains in muscle mass or strength. Our data show that in resistance-trained individuals, load, when exercises are performed to volitional failure, does not dictate hypertrophy or, for the most part, strength gains.
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“Although these pathways are clearly relevant, they do not fully explain how high mechanical tension can directly influence transcriptional programs linked to growth [144,203].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Even resistance-trained individuals show increases in strength when training with very light loads, albeit to a lesser extent than with the use of heavy loads [16,17].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“both low-load (e.g., 30% 1RM) and high-load (e.g., 80% 1RM) training can stimulate equivalent macroscopic muscle growth when sets are performed with sufficient effort and proximity to failure [143,144].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
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“Likewise, Morton et al. [16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs. 20 to 25RM produced significant changes in lean body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis in a group of resistance-trained men following a 12-week total body training program, with no observed differences between the groups.”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“Regarding longitudinal research, some studies show a fiber type specific response [70,71,72] while others do not [16,73,74].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“However, it also needs to be mentioned that adherence to the training programs was reported only in one study (Morton et al., 2016).”
From The effects of low-load vs. high-load resistance training on muscle fiber hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. (2020) · cites this paper as Morton et al., 2016
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Cites
Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults
(2009) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3181915670 · Cited by 4,332 · cited 4×
“In addition, and in contrast to what 67 others have proposed (18, 19, 31), we have also demonstrated that resistance exercise-induced 68 increases in circulating hormones play little role in regulating muscle protein synthesis after an 69”
BackgroundResultInfluentialProgression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults
(2002) · Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-200202000-00027 · Cited by 2,979
Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription
KRAEMER, W. J., & RATAMESS, N. A. (2004) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000121945.36635.61 · Cited by 1,992 · cited 1×
“In addition, and in contrast to what 67 others have proposed (18, 19, 31), we have also demonstrated that resistance exercise-induced 68 increases in circulating hormones play little role in regulating muscle protein synthesis after an 69”
ResultEssentials of Strength Training and Conditioning
Baechle, T. R., & Earle, R. (1994) · Cited by 1,535
Neural adaptation to resistance training
SALE, D. G. (1988) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/00005768-198810001-00009 · Cited by 1,421 · cited 1×
“Indeed, strength is a product of muscle mass (23), neural adaptation (7, 32), and “practice” of the desired outcome.”
BackgroundHormonal Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Exercise and Training
Kraemer, W. J., & Ratamess, N. A. (2005) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-200535040-00004 · Cited by 1,389 · cited 3×
“383 A further purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of novel (DHT, 384 DHEA and LH) and canonical (IGF-1, GH and T) post-exercise, circulating hormones that have 385 been hypothesized to provide an anabolic stimulus (for reviews see (19, 47)).”
BackgroundResultCampos, G., Luecke, T., Wendeln, H., Toma, K., Hagerman, F., Murray, T., Ragg, K., Ratamess, N., Kraemer, W., & Staron, R. (2002) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-002-0681-6 · Cited by 1,066 · cited 4×
“hypertrophy and strength gains (5, 15, 41); however, it is obvious that when performing RT with 322”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCermak, N. M., Res, P. T., de Groot, L. C., Saris, W. H., & van Loon, L. J. (2012) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.037556 · Cited by 827 · cited 1×
“Participants consumed 30 g of whey protein (BioPRO, 129 Davisco Foods International, Le Sueur, MN) twice per day: immediately following RT on 130 training days (8) and the other prior to sleep (39).”
MethodBloemberg, D., & Quadrilatero, J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035273 · Cited by 629 · cited 1×
“Fibre type 199 and CSA were assessed via immunofluorescent staining of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms 200 and dystrophin as previously described (2, 37).”
MethodWilkinson, S. B., Phillips, S. M., Atherton, P. J., Patel, R., Yarasheski, K. E., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Rennie, M. J. (2008) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2008.153916 · Cited by 628 · cited 1×
“Given that resistance-trained individuals exhibit an attenuated muscle protein synthetic response to resistance exercise (17, 53), they are likely less “adaptable” than untrained persons in terms of phenotypic adaptations of skeletal muscle in response to RT.”
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1 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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Schoenfeld, B. J., Grgic, J., Ogborn, D., & Krieger, J. W. (2017) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002200 · Cited by 851
“That said, not all studies have found such an effect (32) and further research is therefore needed to draw relevant practical inferences.”
BackgroundLixandrão, M. E., Ugrinowitsch, C., Berton, R., Vechin, F. C., Conceição, M. S., Damas, F., Libardi, C. A., & Roschel, H. (2018) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0795-y · Cited by 554
“Interestingly, it has been suggested that specificity deficit between different RT protocols could be mitigated by routinely practicing with 1RM [33].”
BackgroundAdaptations to Endurance and Strength TrainingPreprint
Hughes, D. C., Ellefsen, S., & Baar, K. (2017) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a029769 · Cited by 661
“However, recent evidence appears to cast doubt over the hypothesis that hormones contribute to exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy and growth (West et al. 2009, 2010, 2012; Schroeder et al. 2013; Morton et al. 2016).”
BackgroundVigotsky, A. D., Halperin, I., Lehman, G. J., Trajano, G. S., & Vieira, T. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00985 · Cited by 503
Centner, C., Wiegel, P., Gollhofer, A., & König, D. (2019) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-018-0994-1 · Cited by 382
Metadata
- Authors
- Morton, R. W., Oikawa, S. Y., Wavell, C. G., Mazara, N., McGlory, C., Quadrilatero, J., Baechler, B. L., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Phillips, Stuart M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2016-05-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 129-138
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- PMC
- PMC4967245
- OpenAlex
- W2351799718
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 14
- FWCI
- 57.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science and Engineering Council of Canada (RGPIN-2015-04613)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- resistance training, muscle hypertrophy, strength gain, training load, resistance-trained men, anabolic hormones, lean body mass, muscle fiber cross-sectional area, unilateral training
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Hormones, Humans, Hypertrophy, Male, Weight Lifting, Exercise, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Strength, Resistance Training, Young Adult
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