Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men
Open accessAbstract
We reported, using a unilateral resistance training (RT) model, that training with high or low loads (mass per repetition) resulted in similar muscle hypertrophy and strength improvements in RT-naïve subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether the same was true in men with previous RT experience using a whole-body RT program and whether postexercise systemic hormone concentrations were related to changes in hypertrophy and strength. Forty-nine resistance-trained men (23 ± 1 yr, mean ± SE) performed 12 wk of whole-body RT. Subjects were randomly allocated into a higher-repetition (HR) group who lifted loads of ∼30-50% of their maximal strength (1RM) for 20-25 repetitions/set (n = 24) or a lower-repetition (LR) group (∼75-90% 1RM, 8-12 repetitions/set, n = 25), with all sets being performed to volitional failure. Skeletal muscle biopsies, strength testing, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scans, and acute changes in systemic hormone concentrations were examined pretraining and posttraining. In response to RT, 1RM strength increased for all exercises in both groups (P < 0.01), with only the change in bench press being significantly different between groups (HR, 9 ± 1, vs. LR, 14 ± 1 kg, P = 0.012). Fat- and bone-free (lean) body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area increased following training (P < 0.01) with no significant differences between groups. No significant correlations between the acute postexercise rise in any purported anabolic hormone and the change in strength or hypertrophy were found. In congruence with our previous work, acute postexercise systemic hormonal rises are not related to or in any way indicative of RT-mediated gains in muscle mass or strength. Our data show that in resistance-trained individuals, load, when exercises are performed to volitional failure, does not dictate hypertrophy or, for the most part, strength gains.
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These pathways do not fully explain how high mechanical tension can directly influence transcriptional programs linked to growth.
“Although these pathways are clearly relevant, they do not fully explain how high mechanical tension can directly influence transcriptional programs linked to growth [144,203].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
The NEW & NOTEWORTHY section says the study's data suggest that neither load nor systemic hormone concentrations determine resistance-training hypertrophy, supporting the broad point that those factors do not fully explain growth. The paper does not address how high mechanical tension directly influences growth-related transcriptional programs; searches for mechanical tension, transcription, and gene expression did not locate that mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredResistance-trained individuals show increases in strength when training with very light loads, albeit to a lesser extent than with heavy loads.
“Even resistance-trained individuals show increases in strength when training with very light loads, albeit to a lesser extent than with the use of heavy loads [16,17].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
The Discussion reports that resistance-trained participants gained strength with both lower and higher loads. Gains did not differ for leg press, knee extension, or shoulder press; only bench-press gains were greater with heavier loads (15% versus 9%). Thus, the claim that lighter loads generally produced lesser gains overstates this study's findings. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBoth low-load (e.g., 30% 1RM) and high-load (e.g., 80% 1RM) training can stimulate equivalent macroscopic muscle growth when sets are performed with sufficient effort and proximity to failure.
“both low-load (e.g., 30% 1RM) and high-load (e.g., 80% 1RM) training can stimulate equivalent macroscopic muscle growth when sets are performed with sufficient effort and proximity to failure [143,144].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
Morton et al. found that training with 8 to 12RM vs. 20 to 25RM produced significant changes in lean body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area of the vastus lateralis in resistance-trained men following a 12-week total body training program, with no observed differences between the groups.
“Likewise, Morton et al. [16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs. 20 to 25RM produced significant changes in lean body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis in a group of resistance-trained men following a 12-week total body training program, with no observed differences between the groups.”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Regarding longitudinal research, some studies show a fiber type specific response while others do not.
“Regarding longitudinal research, some studies show a fiber type specific response [70,71,72] while others do not [16,73,74].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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Cites
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BackgroundResistance exercise load does not determine training-mediated hypertrophic gains in young men
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“403 It is important to acknowledge that our repetition ranges and loads were chosen to match 404 previous study ‘intensities’ (4, 5, 15, 28, 43, 44) and replicate those of current guidelines set 405 forth by the American College of Sports Medicine (31) and National Strength and Conditioning 406 Association (12).”
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ResultNutritional interventions to augment resistance training-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy
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“Indeed, strength is a product of muscle mass (23), neural adaptation (7, 32), 378 and the ‘practice’ of the desired outcome.”
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“others have also found similar increases in 1RM in healthy untrained (15) and trained (33) men 368”
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“hypertrophy and strength gain that occurs with RT (13, 27, 28, 48) we conducted the study with a 94”
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“more sets) (34), it remains apparent 357 that the similar adaptations are a result of the resistance exercise being performed until volitional 358 failure.”
BackgroundWhey protein supplementation during resistance training augments lean body mass
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“both low repetition (high load) (1, 20, 41) and high repetition (low load) (5, 28, 44) RT to induce 370”
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MethodResistance training alters the response of fed state mixed muscle protein synthesis in young men
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“The attenuated gains 311 in muscle size in the present study versus those seen by Mitchell et al (28) are congruent with 312 previous literature showing a blunted training response in resistance-trained individuals who 313 would presumably have less capacity for adaptation since they are regularly exposed to the 314 s…”
ResultFasted‐state skeletal muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise is altered with training
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“5 attenuated muscle protein synthetic response to resistance exercise (17, 53), they are likely less 77 ‘adaptable’ than untrained persons in terms of phenotypic adaptations of skeletal muscle in 78 response to RT.”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationThe size principle: a rule describing the recruitment of motoneurons
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“While the mechanisms underlying fatigue may be different between groups (11, 22), at volitional failure the size principle would dictate that larger motor units have been recruited in an attempt to sustain the required force (14, 26).”
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“West and Phillips (52) concluded that anabolic hormones such as GH, IGF-1, and T have little to no correlation with changes in hypertrophy and strength as a result of a 12-wk RT intervention.”
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West, D. W. D., Burd, N. A., Churchward-Venne, T. A., Camera, D. M., Mitchell, C. J., Baker, S. K., Hawley, J. A., Coffey, V. G., & Phillips, S. M. (2012) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00170.2012 · Cited by 143 · cited 1× · see citing works
“similar magnitudes of myofibrillar protein synthesis in response to the same RT stimulus (49).”
BackgroundMuscle activation during three sets to failure at 80 vs. 30 % 1RM resistance exercise
Jenkins, N. D. M., Housh, T. J., Bergstrom, H. C., Cochrane, K. C., Hill, E. C., Smith, C. M., Johnson, G. O., Schmidt, R. J., & Cramer, J. T. (2015) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-015-3214-9 · Cited by 140 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It has even been suggested, on the basis of only acute electromyography (EMG) data [despite caution on use of EMG in this manner (10)], that greater motor unit recruitment occurs when lifting heavier loads even if heavier and lighter loads are performed to volitional failure (16, 21).”
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Scribbans, T. D., Edgett, B. A., Vorobej, K., Mitchell, A. S., Joanisse, S., Matusiak, J. B. L., Parise, G., Quadrilatero, J., & Gurd, B. J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098119 · Cited by 129 · cited 1× · see citing works
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“There have been recent claims 335 that greater EMG amplitude seen with a higher versus a lower load condition is equivalent to 336 greater motor unit drive and thus greater potential for hypertrophy (21); however, such a premise 337 is fundamentally incorrect as has been pointed out (45, 46).”
BackgroundLooney, D. P., Kraemer, W. J., Joseph, M. F., Comstock, B. A., Denegar, C. R., Flanagan, S. D., Newton, R. U., Szivak, T. K., DuPont, W. H., Hooper, D. R., et al. (2016) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001109 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
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“The current findings taken together with previous 420 reports (1, 20, 28) show that these effects are not contingent upon training status or study design.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBig claims for big weights but with little evidence
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“4 Introduction 54 Resistance training (RT) is a potent stimulus for increasing skeletal muscle mass and strength (9, 55 30); however, the exact RT variables that determine skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength 56 remain a topic of continued investigation (3, 36).”
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“While the mechanisms underlying fatigue may be different between 333 groups (11, 22), at volitional failure the size principle would dictate that larger motor units have 334 been recruited in an attempt to sustain the required force (14, 26).”
BackgroundPreponderance of evidence proves “big” weights optimize hypertrophic and strength adaptations
Schuenke, M. D., Herman, J. R., & Staron, R. S. (2012) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-012-2528-0 · Cited by 19 · cited 1× · see citing works
“4 Introduction 54 Resistance training (RT) is a potent stimulus for increasing skeletal muscle mass and strength (9, 55 30); however, the exact RT variables that determine skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength 56 remain a topic of continued investigation (3, 36).”
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“a lower-load condition is equivalent to greater motor unit drive and thus greater potential for hypertrophy (21); however, such a premise is fundamentally incorrect as has been pointed out (45, 46).”
BackgroundStatistical Analysis of Fiber Area in Human Skeletal Muscle
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“All data reported in this manuscript, unless otherwise stated, have type IIA and type IIX fiber types pooled together and reported as type II fibers because of the number necessary to individually analyze type IIA and IIX fibers ( 50–60) per sample (24, 25).”
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Schoenfeld, B. J., Grgic, J., Ogborn, D., & Krieger, J. W. (2017) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002200 · Cited by 851 · see citing works
“That said, not all studies have found such an effect (32) and further research is therefore needed to draw relevant practical inferences.”
BackgroundLixandrão, M. E., Ugrinowitsch, C., Berton, R., Vechin, F. C., Conceição, M. S., Damas, F., Libardi, C. A., & Roschel, H. (2018) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0795-y · Cited by 554 · see citing works
“Interestingly, it has been suggested that specificity deficit between different RT protocols could be mitigated by routinely practicing with 1RM [33].”
BackgroundAdaptations to Endurance and Strength TrainingPreprint
Hughes, D. C., Ellefsen, S., & Baar, K. (2017) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a029769 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
“However, recent evidence appears to cast doubt over the hypothesis that hormones contribute to exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy and growth (West et al. 2009, 2010, 2012; Schroeder et al. 2013; Morton et al. 2016).”
BackgroundVigotsky, A. D., Halperin, I., Lehman, G. J., Trajano, G. S., & Vieira, T. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00985 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Centner, C., Wiegel, P., Gollhofer, A., & König, D. (2019) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-018-0994-1 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Circadian rhythms and exercise — re-setting the clock in metabolic disease
Gabriel, B. M., & Zierath, J. R. (2019) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-018-0150-x · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Chronic Adaptations to Eccentric Training: A Systematic Review
Douglas, J. M., Pearson, S. N., Ross, A., & McGuigan, M. R. (2016) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0628-4 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
“It is possible that under these conditions there is a progressive recruitment and fatigue of higher threshold motor units, which in turn can instigate a marked hypertrophic response independent of high levels of mechanical tension [97].”
BackgroundLOPEZ, P., RADAELLI, R., TAAFFE, D. R., NEWTON, R. U., GALVÃO, D. A., TRAJANO, G. S., TEODORO, J. L., KRAEMER, W. J., HÄKKINEN, K., & PINTO, R. S. (2021) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002585 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
“(43) was included in the systematic review.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSchoenfeld, B. J., Grgic, J., Van Every, D. W., & Plotkin, D. L. (2021) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports9020032 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
“[16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs.”
BackgroundInfluentialEgan, B., & Sharples, A. P. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00054.2021 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals
Furrer, R., Hawley, J. A., & Handschin, C. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00017.2022 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Roberts, M. D., McCarthy, J. J., Hornberger, T. A., Phillips, S. M., Mackey, A. L., Nader, G. A., Boppart, M. D., Kavazis, A. N., Reidy, P. T., Ogasawara, R., et al. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00039.2022 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Blagrove, R. C., Howatson, G., & Hayes, P. R. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“Although training to repetition failure may be more important than the load lifted for inducing a hypertrophy response [215], this is both unfavorable and unnecessary to optimize gains in strength compared to a non-repetition failure strategy [216].”
BackgroundDetermining Strength: A Case for Multiple Methods of Measurement
Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Counts, B. R., Dankel, S. J., & Loenneke, J. P. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0580-3 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“[12], which showed that multiple exposures to a 1RM during a low-load resistance training programme could largely abolish the difference in 1RM strength typically observed between high-load and lowload training modalities.”
BackgroundTime course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure
Morán-Navarro, R., Pérez, C. E., Mora-Rodríguez, R., de la Cruz-Sánchez, E., González-Badillo, J. J., Sánchez-Medina, L., & Pallarés, J. G. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3725-7 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
“, reaching or approaching volitional failure in each set) is an important factor to maximize muscle growth (Morton et al. 2016).”
Pathophysiological mechanisms leading to muscle loss in chronic kidney disease
Wang, X. H., Mitch, W. E., & Price, S. R. (2021) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/s41581-021-00498-0 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Hilton, E. N., & Lundberg, T. R. (2021) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01389-3 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Colenso‐Semple, L. M., D’Souza, A. C., Elliott-Sale, K. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1054542 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Jessee, M. B., Buckner, S. L., Mouser, J. G., Mattocks, K. T., Dankel, S. J., Abe, T., Bell, Z. W., Bentley, J. P., & Loenneke, J. P. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01448 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“, 30% 1RM) to volitional failure elicits increases in muscle size and strength similar to high-load resistance training (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBarclay, R. D., Burd, N. A., Tyler, C. J., Tillin, N. A., & Mackenzie, R. W. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00146 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“It has recently been suggested that large, but transient, increases in exercise-induced plasma IGF-1 concentrations are not required for activation of intracellular muscle signaling and the subsequent skeletal muscle adaptive response (35, 36).”
LIM, C., NUNES, E. A., CURRIER, B. S., MCLEOD, J. C., THOMAS, A. C. Q., & PHILLIPS, S. M. (2022) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002929 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“, a catabolic hormone for skeletal muscle) was the only hormone shown to be associated with the change in type II fiber CSA resulting from RET (75).”
BackgroundGharahdaghi, N., Phillips, B. E., Szewczyk, N. J., Smith, K., Wilkinson, D. J., & Atherton, P. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.621226 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“, 1998) and it may be speculated that the effect would be more pronounced in individuals experiencing greater activation of intracellular muscle signaling and subsequent muscle hypertrophy and performance (Velloso, 2008; Arnarson et al., 2015; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Step Reduction on Muscle Health in Aging: Protein and Exercise as Countermeasures
Oikawa, S. Y., Holloway, T. M., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00075 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Given the robust impact of resistance exercise on skeletal muscle anabolism in younger and older adults (56, 61) it is not wholly surprising that RT was able to preserve aged skeletal muscle during SR to levels similar to healthy controls.”
BackgroundMorton, R. W., Sonne, M. W., Farias Zuniga, A., Mohammad, I. Y. Z., Jones, A., McGlory, C., Keir, P. J., Potvin, J. R., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp278056 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“The Journal of Physiology C© 2019 The Physiological Society (Mitchell et al. 2012; Morton et al. 2015, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMechanisms Behind Blood Flow–Restricted Training and its Effect Toward Muscle Growth
Hwang, P. S., & Willoughby, D. S. (2017) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002384 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“adaptations indicative of muscle growth (55,65).”
Sex differences in human performance
Hunter, S. K., & Senefeld, J. W. (2024) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp284198 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“…and modest increases in endogenous testosterone after resistance exercise training are not associated with increases in muscle protein synthesis or hypertrophic adaptations among males or females (Mitchell et al., 2013; Morton et al., 2016; West et al., 2009, 2010, 2012; Wilkinson et al., 2006).”
Practicing the Test Produces Strength Equivalent to Higher Volume Training
MATTOCKS, K. T., BUCKNER, S. L., JESSEE, M. B., DANKEL, S. J., MOUSER, J. G., & LOENNEKE, J. P. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001300 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“, every 3 wk) diminished the strength differences between high load and low load training (22).”
BackgroundThe role of hormones in muscle hypertrophy
Fink, J. E., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Nakazato, K. (2017) · The Physician and Sportsmedicine · doi:10.1080/00913847.2018.1406778 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“Several studies have found the correlation between RTinduced endogenous hormonal increases and muscle hypertrophy as trivial to weak [2,3,34,37].”
BackgroundSchoenfeld, B. J., Fisher, J. P., Grgić, J., Haun, C. T., Helms, E. R., Phillips, S. M., Steele, J., & Vigotsky, A. D. (2021) · International Journal of Strength and Conditioning · doi:10.47206/ijsc.v1i1.81 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Similarly, short-term responses of MPS to lifting with lower and higher loads (55) aligned with unilateral (69) and independent group comparative outcomes (70); namely, that when lower loads were lifted to the point of failure, they are as effective at stimulating hypertrophy as heavier loads.”
BackgroundNoone, J., Mucinski, J. M., DeLany, J. P., Sparks, L. M., & Goodpaster, B. H. (2024) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2023.12.025 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Fisher, J. P., & Steele, J. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25537 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Nutritional Supplements to Support Resistance Exercise in Countering the Sarcopenia of Aging
McKendry, J., Currier, B. S., Lim, C., Mcleod, J. C., Thomas, A. C. Q., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12072057 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Morton, R. W., Sato, K., Gallaugher, M. P. B., Oikawa, S. Y., McNicholas, P. D., Fujita, S., & Phillips, S. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01373 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Returning to Play after Prolonged Training Restrictions in Professional Collision Sports
Stokes, K., Jones, B. L., Bennett, M., Close, G. L., Gill, N., Hull, J. H., Kasper, A. M., Kemp, S. P. T., Mellalieu, S. D., Peirce, N. S., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1180-3692 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
MacInnis, M. J., McGlory, C., Gibala, M. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2017) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2016-0645 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“…their chronic effects, as has been performed frequently by our research groups when investigating the influence of circulating hormones (West et al. 2009, 2010), resistance exercise load (Mitchell et al. 2012, Morton et al. 2016), and carbohydrate availability (Cochran et al. 2010, 2015).”
BackgroundRole of metabolic stress for enhancing muscle adaptations: Practical applications
de Freitas, M. C., Gerosa-Neto, J., Zanchi, N. E., Lira, F. S., & Rossi, F. E. (2017) · World Journal of Methodology · doi:10.5662/wjm.v7.i2.46 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Do metabolites that are produced during resistance exercise enhance muscle hypertrophy?
Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., Buckner, S. L., Mouser, J. G., & Loenneke, J. P. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3690-1 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Pareja‐Blanco, F., Alcázar, J., Cornejo‐Daza, P. J., Sánchez‐Valdepeñas, J., Rodríguez-López, C., Mora, J. H., Sánchez‐Moreno, M., Mena, B. B., Alegre, L. M., & Ortega‐Becerra, M. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13775 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Training for strength and hypertrophy: an evidence-based approach.
Morton, R. W., Colenso-Semple, L., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2019.04.006 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Dankel, S. J., Counts, B. R., Barnett, B. E., Buckner, S. L., Abe, T., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25488 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Interestingly, the 1RM strength differences that are present upon completing low- or high-load training appear to be largely abolished when the 1RM test is performed periodically (every 3 weeks).(24) Our results appear to support these findings, and suggest that individuals looking to maximally increase 1RM strength s…”
ResultSarcopenia definition: Does it really matter? Implications for resistance training
Smith, C., Woessner, M. N., Sim, M., & Levinger, I. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101617 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Nóbrega, S. R., Ugrinowitsch, C., Pintanel, L., Barcelos, C., & Libardi, C. A. (2018) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001787 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“(26) reported performing familiarization sessions for the 1RM test.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHaun, C. T., Vann, C. G., Osburn, S. C., Mumford, P. W., Roberson, P. A., Romero, M. A., Fox, C. D., Johnson, C. A., Parry, H. A., Kavazis, A. N., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215267 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“4 INTRODUCTION Weeks to months of resistance training increases skeletal muscle mean fiber crosssectional area (fCSA) [1-10].”
BackgroundLasevicius, T., Schoenfeld, B. J., Silva-Batista, C., Barros, T. D. S., Aihara, A. Y., Brendon, H., Longo, A. R., Tricoli, V., Peres, B. D. A., & Teixeira, E. L. (2022) · Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003454 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that low-load resistance training only promotes similar muscle hypertrophy to high load resistance training when the low load condition is performed to muscle failure (10,22,24,26).”
BackgroundAngleri, V., Ugrinowitsch, C., & Libardi, C. A. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-016-3529-1 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Spiering, B. A., Mujika, I., Sharp, M. A., & Foulis, S. A. (2021) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003964 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Finally, although multiple methods exist for defining the “intensity” of strength training (8,33), the studies referenced in this review paper have defined “intensity” as the load used relative to the individual’s maximal ability.”
Joanisse, S., Lim, C., McKendry, J., Mcleod, J. C., Stokes, T., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.21588.1 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Baz-Valle, E., Fontes-Villalba, M., & Santos-Concejero, J. (2021) · Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002776 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“(18) HR: 3 3 20–25RM/10 12 wk, 43 No No significant differences between groups, and similar effect sizes LR: 3 3 8–12RM/10 Schoenfeld et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, D., Loenneke, J. P., Ye, X., Bemben, D. A., Beck, T. W., Larson, R. D., & Bemben, M. G. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25626 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“To illustrate, a previous study showed that periodic practice of the 1-RM test can largely eliminate the differences observed between HL and low-load training.(23,24)”
MethodEvidence-Based Guidelines for Resistance Training Volume to Maximize Muscle Hypertrophy
Schoenfeld, B. J., & Grgić, J. (2017) · Strength and conditioning journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000363 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Alternatively, VL seems to be of little consequence to low-load RT protocols because studies show similar muscle growth when comparing training with low versus moderate loads despite a substantially higher VL in the low-load conditions (22,24,29).”
BackgroundWeakley, J. J. S., Cowley, N., Schoenfeld, B. J., Read, D. B., Timmins, R. G., García‐Ramos, A., & McGuckian, T. B. (2023) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01877-2 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Resistance exercise–induced changes in muscle phenotype are load dependent
LIM, C., KIM, H. J., MORTON, R. W., HARRIS, R., PHILLIPS, S. M., JEONG, T. S., & KIM, C. K. (2019) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002088 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“However, similar to recent research (7), we observed similar RET-induced increases in both type I and type II muscle fiber CSA when RET was performed to volitional fatigue (i.”
BackgroundResultThe Role of the Skeletal Muscle Secretome in Mediating Endurance and Resistance Training Adaptations
Leuchtmann, A. B., Adak, V., Dilbaz, S., & Handschin, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.709807 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Loenneke, J. P., Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., & Abe, T. (2019) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01106-9 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Endocrinological Roles for Testosterone in Resistance Exercise Responses and Adaptations
Hooper, D. R., Kraemer, W. J., Focht, B. C., Volek, J. S., DuPont, W. H., Caldwell, L. K., & Maresh, C. M. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0698-y · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The acute and chronic effects of “NO LOAD” resistance training
Counts, B. R., Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., Jessee, M. B., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Laurentino, G. C., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.024 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The problem Of muscle hypertrophy: Revisited
Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., Mouser, J. G., Counts, B. R., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25420 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“In support, Morton et al.(12) showed that multiple exposures to a 1RM during a low-load resistance training program can largely abolish the difference in 1RM strength typically observed between such training modalities.”
BackgroundExercise Snacking to Improve Muscle Function in Healthy Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Perkin, O. J., McGuigan, P. M., & Stokes, K. (2019) · Journal of Aging Research · doi:10.1155/2019/7516939 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Recent evidence suggests that low-load resistance training can also be efficacious in increasing muscle strength, particularly in an untrained population, albeit to a lesser degree in comparison to high-load resistance training [10, 11].”
Kirk, B., Mooney, K., Amirabdollahian, F., & Khaiyat, O. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00445 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Scarpelli, M. C., Nóbrega, S. R., Santanielo, N., Alvarez, I. F., Otoboni, G. B., Ugrinowitsch, C., & Libardi, C. A. (2020) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003558 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Resistance training variables for optimization of muscle hypertrophy: an umbrella review.
Bernárdez-Vázquez, R., Raya-González, J., Castillo, D., & Beato, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.949021 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“This leads to questioning the need to implement periodization models in resistance training programs (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSchwanbeck, S. R., Cornish, S. M., Barss, T., & Chilibeck, P. D. (2020) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003349 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Grgić, J., & Schoenfeld, B. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00402 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Such events inadvertently bias results in favor of the high-load condition given that a high level of fatigue is obligatory to achieve hypertrophic benefits when training with lower loads (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodMesquita, P. H. C., Vann, C. G., Phillips, S. M., McKendry, J., Young, K. C., Kavazis, A. N., & Roberts, M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.725866 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Weakley, J. J. S., Schoenfeld, B. J., Ljungberg, J. K., Halson, S. L., & Phillips, S. M. (2023) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-023-00578-4 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Evidence suggests that full motor unit activation can be achieved within 3–5 reps of concentric failure [57], with lower load volitional interruption allowing comparable increases in strength and CSA compared to training with higher loads or lower loads to failure [4, 13, 15, 17].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSteele, J., Raubold, K., KEMMLER, W. K., Fisher, J. P., Gentil, P., & Gießing, J. (2017) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2017/2541090 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Adaptations to heavier- or lighter-loads seem similar when repetitions are performed to MF in older adults [40] similarly to findings in both adolescent [41] and young adult populations [42].”
Resultde Lacio, M. L., Vieira, J. G., Trybulski, R., Campos, Y., Santana, D., Filho, J. E., Novaes, J. D. S., Vianna, J. M., & Wilk, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111237 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Additionally, studies that applied this technique chose the vastus lateralis for the analysis [23,28,29,46], which limits the extrapolation of results to other muscles that might respond differently to the same exercise protocol.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDamas, F., Angleri, V., Phillips, S. M., Witard, O. C., Ugrinowitsch, C., Santanielo, N., Soligon, S. D., Costa, L. A. R., Lixandrão, M. E., Conceição, M. S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00350.2019 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Stokes, T., Tripp, T. R., Murphy, K., Morton, R. W., Oikawa, S. Y., Choi, H. L., McGrath, J., McGlory, C., MacDonald, M. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2021) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14683 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“We studied 34 male participants from a previously published investigation (Age, 23 ± 3 yrs; Body Mass, 86.6 ± 13.5 kg; BMI, 26.4 ± 3.3 kg/m2; (Morton et al., 2016)).”
InfluentialEffects of rest intervals and training loads on metabolic stress and muscle hypertrophy
Fink, J. E., Kikuchi, N., & Nakazato, K. (2016) · Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging · doi:10.1111/cpf.12409 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Our findings are in line with a recent study showing no correlation between acute systemic hormonal elevations and muscle hypertrophy (Morton et al., 2016).”
ResultIkezoe, T., Kobayashi, T., Nakamura, M., & Ichihashi, N. (2017) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002278 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“(16) suggested that when partic ipants were tested periodically for maximal strength, the increases in muscular strength were not significant ly different between the LLHR and HLLR groups.”
BackgroundMolecular Transducers of Human Skeletal Muscle Remodeling under Different Loading States
Stokes, T., Timmons, J. A., Crossland, H., Tripp, T. R., Murphy, K., McGlory, C., Mitchell, C. J., Oikawa, S. Y., Morton, R. W., Phillips, B. E., et al. (2020) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107980 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“0 gene chips; Data S1), each with DXAmeasured changes in LLM following exercise training (Mitchell et al., 2014; Morton et al., 2016; Phillips et al., 2017) to establish which of the 2,000 HypAt-regulated genes were potential regulators of growth.”
MethodSteele, J., Endres, A., Fisher, J. P., Gentil, P., & Gießing, J. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.4105 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“These secondary variables include; load (Morton et al., 2016; Schoenfeld et al., 2015; Schoenfeld et al., 2016; Fisher, Ironside & Steele, 2016), repetition duration (Schoenfeld, Ogborn & Krieger, 2015), and the use of advanced or complicated training methods such as pre-exhaustion (Fisher et al.”
BackgroundVigotsky, A. D., Halperin, I., Lehman, G. J., Trajano, G. S., & Vieira, T. (2017) · doi:10.31236/osf.io/fkbx8 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Refalo, M. C., Hamilton, D. L., Paval, D. R., Gallagher, I. J., Feros, S. A., & Fyfe, J. J. (2021) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2021.1898094 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Four of the six studies (Lim et al., 2019; Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016; Taaffe et al., 1996) demonstrated equivalent improvements in muscle fCSA amongst both loading conditions and two studies (Campos et al., 2002; Schuenke et al., 2012) revealed greater improvements for high-load…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBurley, S. D., Drain, J. R., Sampson, J. A., & Groeller, H. (2018) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2018.06.018 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Arterial stiffness is reduced regardless of resistance training load in young men
AU, J. S., OIKAWA, S. Y., Morton, R. W., MACDONALD, M. J., & PHILLIPS, S. M. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001106 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Schoenfeld, B. J., Vigotsky, A. D., Grgic, J., Haun, C., Contreras, B., Delcastillo, K., Francis, A., Cote, G., & Alto, A. (2020) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14427 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“…muscles has produced conflicting re-sults on the topic, with some studies showing differential fiber-type specific hypertrophic effects between loading conditions (Netreba et al., 2013; Vinogradova et al., 2013) and others showing negligible differences (Lim et al., 2019; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundVigotsky, A., Halperin, I., Trajano, G., & Vieira, T. (2022) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01619-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Bell, Z. W., Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Mouser, J. G., Mattocks, K. T., Dankel, S. J., Abe, T., & Loenneke, J. P. (2018) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-018-3877-0 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Ozaki, H., Kubota, A., Natsume, T., Loenneke, J. P., Abe, T., Machida, S., & Naito, H. (2018) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2017.1331042 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“These findings have been recently confirmed in resistance trained individuals (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultWilson, M. T., Ryan, A. M. F., Vallance, S., Dias-Dougan, A., Dugdale, J. H., Hunter, A. M., Hamilton, D. L., & Macgregor, L. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.01493 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Haun, C. T., Mumford, P. W., Roberson, P. A., Romero, M. A., Mobley, C. B., Kephart, W. C., Anderson, R. G., Colquhoun, R. J., Muddle, T. W. D., Luera, M. J., et al. (2017) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13457 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Grgić, J., Mikulić, P., Podnar, H., & Pedišić, Ž. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.3695 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“However, as the recent study by Morton et al. (2016) has shown, even trained individuals may achieve robust gains in strength and muscle mass employing a non-periodized approach, if adequate progressive overload is used.”
BackgroundGrgic, J. (2020) · Journal of Human Kinetics · doi:10.2478/hukin-2020-0013 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“However, it also needs to be mentioned that adherence to the training programs was reported only in one study (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLong-Term Strength Adaptation: A 15-Year Analysis of Powerlifting Athletes
Latella, C., Teo, W., Spathis, J. G., & van den Hoek, D. (2020) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003657 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Li, Y., Jing, Y., Wang, Y., Jianming, Z., Zeng, G., Yiting, T., & Li, S. (2021) · Journal of International Medical Research · doi:10.1177/03000605211039564 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Some studies have shown that an increase in synthetic hormones cannot cause muscle hypertrophy.(24,25) Other studies have shown that an increase in synthetic hormones improves muscle fitness.”
BackgroundHickmott, L. M., Chilibeck, P. D., Shaw, K. A., & Butcher, S. J. (2022) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-021-00404-9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Sexton, C., Godwin, J. S., McIntosh, M. C., Ruple, B. A., Osburn, S. C., Hollingsworth, B., Kontos, N. J., Agostinelli, P., Kavazis, A., Ziegenfuss, T., et al. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12020263 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ribeiro, A. S., Schoenfeld, B. J., de Souza, M. F., Tomeleri, C. M., Silva, A. M., Teixeira, D. D. C., Sardinha, L. B., & Cyrino, E. S. (2017) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2017.1310932 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In fact, recent research shows that load manipulation is not a critical component in inducing muscle hypertrophy (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016; Schoenfeld, Peterson, Ogborn, Contreras, & Sonmez, 2015; Schoenfeld et al., 2014, 2016).”
BackgroundA Novel Amino Acid Composition Ameliorates Short-Term Muscle Disuse Atrophy in Healthy Young Men
Holloway, T. M., McGlory, C., McKellar, S. R., Morgan, A. K., Hamill, M., Afeyan, R., Comb, W. C., Confer, S., Zhao, P., Hinton, M., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00105 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Samples were treated and analyzed as described previously for fiber type and size (36, 37).”
MethodAcute fatigue, and perceptual responses to resistance exercise
Fisher, J. P., Farrow, J., & Steele, J. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25645 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Current research supports similar strength and hypertrophy adaptations from both high- and lowload resistance training interventions.(4,6,23,32) However, we have presented significantly greater decrement in MVIT immediately after exercising at LL compared with HL and FR conditions.”
BackgroundMethodResultBlood flow restriction does not augment low force contractions taken to or near task failure
Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Bell, Z. W., Abe, T., Bentley, J. P., & Loenneke, J. P. (2020) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2019.1664640 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Soligon, S. D., da Silva, D. G., Bergamasco, J. G. A., Angleri, V., Medalha, R. A., Dias, N. F., Nóbrega, S. R., César, M. D. C., & Libardi, C. A. (2020) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04446-x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Cornish, S. M., Bugera, E. M., Duhamel, T. A., Peeler, J. D., & Anderson, J. E. (2020) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04337-1 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Is muscle growth a mechanism for increasing strength?
Loenneke, J. P., Dankel, S. J., Bell, Z. W., Buckner, S. L., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., & Abe, T. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.02.030 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Al‐Ozairi, E., Alsaeed, D., Alroudhan, D., Voase, N., Hasan, A., Gill, J. M. R., Sattar, N. A., Welsh, P. I., Gray, C. M., Boonpor, J., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa835 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Oikawa, S. Y., Bahniwal, R., Holloway, T. M., Lim, C., McLeod, J. C., McGlory, C., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12051235 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“similar increases in muscle mass and strength over a training period [3,4].”
BackgroundLecce, E., Amoruso, P., Felici, F., & Bazzucchi, I. (2025) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp289716 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Ismail, A. D., Alkhayl, F. F. A., Wilson, J., Johnston, L., Gill, J. M. R., & Gray, S. R. (2019) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep087435 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Indeed, it has been demonstrated recently that if exercise is performed to volitional failure then gains in muscle mass and strength are similar regardless of the load at which exercise is performed (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResult
- Authors
- Morton, R. W., Oikawa, S. Y., Wavell, C. G., Mazara, N., McGlory, C., Quadrilatero, J., Baechler, B. L., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Phillips, Stuart M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2016-05-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 129-138
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- PMC
- PMC4967245
- OpenAlex
- W2351799718
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 14
- FWCI
- 57.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science and Engineering Council of Canada (RGPIN-2015-04613)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- resistance training, muscle hypertrophy, strength gain, training load, resistance-trained men, anabolic hormones, lean body mass, muscle fiber cross-sectional area, unilateral training
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Hormones, Humans, Hypertrophy, Male, Weight Lifting, Exercise, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Strength, Resistance Training, Young Adult
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