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Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men
Open accessAbstract
We reported, using a unilateral resistance training (RT) model, that training with high or low loads (mass per repetition) resulted in similar muscle hypertrophy and strength improvements in RT-naïve subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether the same was true in men with previous RT experience using a whole-body RT program and whether postexercise systemic hormone concentrations were related to changes in hypertrophy and strength. Forty-nine resistance-trained men (23 ± 1 yr, mean ± SE) performed 12 wk of whole-body RT. Subjects were randomly allocated into a higher-repetition (HR) group who lifted loads of ∼30-50% of their maximal strength (1RM) for 20-25 repetitions/set (n = 24) or a lower-repetition (LR) group (∼75-90% 1RM, 8-12 repetitions/set, n = 25), with all sets being performed to volitional failure. Skeletal muscle biopsies, strength testing, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scans, and acute changes in systemic hormone concentrations were examined pretraining and posttraining. In response to RT, 1RM strength increased for all exercises in both groups (P < 0.01), with only the change in bench press being significantly different between groups (HR, 9 ± 1, vs. LR, 14 ± 1 kg, P = 0.012). Fat- and bone-free (lean) body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area increased following training (P < 0.01) with no significant differences between groups. No significant correlations between the acute postexercise rise in any purported anabolic hormone and the change in strength or hypertrophy were found. In congruence with our previous work, acute postexercise systemic hormonal rises are not related to or in any way indicative of RT-mediated gains in muscle mass or strength. Our data show that in resistance-trained individuals, load, when exercises are performed to volitional failure, does not dictate hypertrophy or, for the most part, strength gains.
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“Although these pathways are clearly relevant, they do not fully explain how high mechanical tension can directly influence transcriptional programs linked to growth [144,203].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
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“Even resistance-trained individuals show increases in strength when training with very light loads, albeit to a lesser extent than with the use of heavy loads [16,17].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“both low-load (e.g., 30% 1RM) and high-load (e.g., 80% 1RM) training can stimulate equivalent macroscopic muscle growth when sets are performed with sufficient effort and proximity to failure [143,144].”
From Ribosome Biogenesis as a Putative Bottleneck to Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: Mechanisms, Human Evidence, and Practical Modulators (2026) · cites this paper as [144]
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“Likewise, Morton et al. [16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs. 20 to 25RM produced significant changes in lean body mass and type I and type II muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) of the vastus lateralis in a group of resistance-trained men following a 12-week total body training program, with no observed differences between the groups.”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“Regarding longitudinal research, some studies show a fiber type specific response [70,71,72] while others do not [16,73,74].”
From Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: a re-examination of the repetition continuum. (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
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“However, it also needs to be mentioned that adherence to the training programs was reported only in one study (Morton et al., 2016).”
From The effects of low-load vs. high-load resistance training on muscle fiber hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. (2020) · cites this paper as Morton et al., 2016
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Cites
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“Fibre type 199 and CSA were assessed via immunofluorescent staining of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms 200 and dystrophin as previously described (2, 37).”
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“Given that resistance-trained individuals exhibit an attenuated muscle protein synthetic response to resistance exercise (17, 53), they are likely less “adaptable” than untrained persons in terms of phenotypic adaptations of skeletal muscle in response to RT.”
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“That said, not all studies have found such an effect (32) and further research is therefore needed to draw relevant practical inferences.”
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BackgroundAdaptations to Endurance and Strength TrainingPreprint
Hughes, D. C., Ellefsen, S., & Baar, K. (2017) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a029769 · Cited by 661
“However, recent evidence appears to cast doubt over the hypothesis that hormones contribute to exercise-induced muscle hypertrophy and growth (West et al. 2009, 2010, 2012; Schroeder et al. 2013; Morton et al. 2016).”
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Circadian rhythms and exercise — re-setting the clock in metabolic disease
Gabriel, B. M., & Zierath, J. R. (2019) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-018-0150-x · Cited by 382
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“It is possible that under these conditions there is a progressive recruitment and fatigue of higher threshold motor units, which in turn can instigate a marked hypertrophic response independent of high levels of mechanical tension [97].”
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“(43) was included in the systematic review.”
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“[16] found that training with 8 to 12RM vs.”
BackgroundInfluentialEgan, B., & Sharples, A. P. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00054.2021 · Cited by 278
The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals
Furrer, R., Hawley, J. A., & Handschin, C. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00017.2022 · Cited by 248
Roberts, M. D., McCarthy, J. J., Hornberger, T. A., Phillips, S. M., Mackey, A. L., Nader, G. A., Boppart, M. D., Kavazis, A. N., Reidy, P. T., Ogasawara, R., et al. (2023) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00039.2022 · Cited by 214
Blagrove, R. C., Howatson, G., & Hayes, P. R. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7 · Cited by 221
“Although training to repetition failure may be more important than the load lifted for inducing a hypertrophy response [215], this is both unfavorable and unnecessary to optimize gains in strength compared to a non-repetition failure strategy [216].”
BackgroundDetermining Strength: A Case for Multiple Methods of Measurement
Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Counts, B. R., Dankel, S. J., & Loenneke, J. P. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0580-3 · Cited by 179
“[12], which showed that multiple exposures to a 1RM during a low-load resistance training programme could largely abolish the difference in 1RM strength typically observed between high-load and lowload training modalities.”
BackgroundTime course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure
Morán-Navarro, R., Pérez, C. E., Mora-Rodríguez, R., de la Cruz-Sánchez, E., González-Badillo, J. J., Sánchez-Medina, L., & Pallarés, J. G. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3725-7 · Cited by 178
“, reaching or approaching volitional failure in each set) is an important factor to maximize muscle growth (Morton et al. 2016).”
Pathophysiological mechanisms leading to muscle loss in chronic kidney disease
Wang, X. H., Mitch, W. E., & Price, S. R. (2021) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/s41581-021-00498-0 · Cited by 182
Hilton, E. N., & Lundberg, T. R. (2021) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01389-3 · Cited by 236
Colenso‐Semple, L. M., D’Souza, A. C., Elliott-Sale, K. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1054542 · Cited by 201
Jessee, M. B., Buckner, S. L., Mouser, J. G., Mattocks, K. T., Dankel, S. J., Abe, T., Bell, Z. W., Bentley, J. P., & Loenneke, J. P. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01448 · Cited by 164
“, 30% 1RM) to volitional failure elicits increases in muscle size and strength similar to high-load resistance training (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBarclay, R. D., Burd, N. A., Tyler, C. J., Tillin, N. A., & Mackenzie, R. W. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00146 · Cited by 161
“It has recently been suggested that large, but transient, increases in exercise-induced plasma IGF-1 concentrations are not required for activation of intracellular muscle signaling and the subsequent skeletal muscle adaptive response (35, 36).”
LIM, C., NUNES, E. A., CURRIER, B. S., MCLEOD, J. C., THOMAS, A. C. Q., & PHILLIPS, S. M. (2022) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002929 · Cited by 142
“, a catabolic hormone for skeletal muscle) was the only hormone shown to be associated with the change in type II fiber CSA resulting from RET (75).”
BackgroundGharahdaghi, N., Phillips, B. E., Szewczyk, N. J., Smith, K., Wilkinson, D. J., & Atherton, P. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.621226 · Cited by 161
“, 1998) and it may be speculated that the effect would be more pronounced in individuals experiencing greater activation of intracellular muscle signaling and subsequent muscle hypertrophy and performance (Velloso, 2008; Arnarson et al., 2015; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Step Reduction on Muscle Health in Aging: Protein and Exercise as Countermeasures
Oikawa, S. Y., Holloway, T. M., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00075 · Cited by 145
“Given the robust impact of resistance exercise on skeletal muscle anabolism in younger and older adults (56, 61) it is not wholly surprising that RT was able to preserve aged skeletal muscle during SR to levels similar to healthy controls.”
BackgroundMorton, R. W., Sonne, M. W., Farias Zuniga, A., Mohammad, I. Y. Z., Jones, A., McGlory, C., Keir, P. J., Potvin, J. R., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp278056 · Cited by 139
“The Journal of Physiology C© 2019 The Physiological Society (Mitchell et al. 2012; Morton et al. 2015, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMechanisms Behind Blood Flow–Restricted Training and its Effect Toward Muscle Growth
Hwang, P. S., & Willoughby, D. S. (2017) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002384 · Cited by 140
“adaptations indicative of muscle growth (55,65).”
Sex differences in human performance
Hunter, S. K., & Senefeld, J. W. (2024) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp284198 · Cited by 172
“…and modest increases in endogenous testosterone after resistance exercise training are not associated with increases in muscle protein synthesis or hypertrophic adaptations among males or females (Mitchell et al., 2013; Morton et al., 2016; West et al., 2009, 2010, 2012; Wilkinson et al., 2006).”
Practicing the Test Produces Strength Equivalent to Higher Volume Training
MATTOCKS, K. T., BUCKNER, S. L., JESSEE, M. B., DANKEL, S. J., MOUSER, J. G., & LOENNEKE, J. P. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001300 · Cited by 137
“, every 3 wk) diminished the strength differences between high load and low load training (22).”
BackgroundThe role of hormones in muscle hypertrophy
Fink, J. E., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Nakazato, K. (2017) · The Physician and Sportsmedicine · doi:10.1080/00913847.2018.1406778 · Cited by 147
“Several studies have found the correlation between RTinduced endogenous hormonal increases and muscle hypertrophy as trivial to weak [2,3,34,37].”
BackgroundSchoenfeld, B. J., Fisher, J. P., Grgić, J., Haun, C. T., Helms, E. R., Phillips, S. M., Steele, J., & Vigotsky, A. D. (2021) · International Journal of Strength and Conditioning · doi:10.47206/ijsc.v1i1.81 · Cited by 141
“Similarly, short-term responses of MPS to lifting with lower and higher loads (55) aligned with unilateral (69) and independent group comparative outcomes (70); namely, that when lower loads were lifted to the point of failure, they are as effective at stimulating hypertrophy as heavier loads.”
BackgroundNoone, J., Mucinski, J. M., DeLany, J. P., Sparks, L. M., & Goodpaster, B. H. (2024) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2023.12.025 · Cited by 128
Fisher, J. P., & Steele, J. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25537 · Cited by 122
Nutritional Supplements to Support Resistance Exercise in Countering the Sarcopenia of Aging
McKendry, J., Currier, B. S., Lim, C., Mcleod, J. C., Thomas, A. C. Q., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12072057 · Cited by 123
Morton, R. W., Sato, K., Gallaugher, M. P. B., Oikawa, S. Y., McNicholas, P. D., Fujita, S., & Phillips, S. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01373 · Cited by 123
Returning to Play after Prolonged Training Restrictions in Professional Collision Sports
Stokes, K., Jones, B. L., Bennett, M., Close, G. L., Gill, N., Hull, J. H., Kasper, A. M., Kemp, S. P. T., Mellalieu, S. D., Peirce, N. S., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1180-3692 · Cited by 122
MacInnis, M. J., McGlory, C., Gibala, M. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2017) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2016-0645 · Cited by 121
“…their chronic effects, as has been performed frequently by our research groups when investigating the influence of circulating hormones (West et al. 2009, 2010), resistance exercise load (Mitchell et al. 2012, Morton et al. 2016), and carbohydrate availability (Cochran et al. 2010, 2015).”
BackgroundRole of metabolic stress for enhancing muscle adaptations: Practical applications
de Freitas, M. C., Gerosa-Neto, J., Zanchi, N. E., Lira, F. S., & Rossi, F. E. (2017) · World Journal of Methodology · doi:10.5662/wjm.v7.i2.46 · Cited by 124
Do metabolites that are produced during resistance exercise enhance muscle hypertrophy?
Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., Buckner, S. L., Mouser, J. G., & Loenneke, J. P. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-017-3690-1 · Cited by 111
Pareja‐Blanco, F., Alcázar, J., Cornejo‐Daza, P. J., Sánchez‐Valdepeñas, J., Rodríguez-López, C., Mora, J. H., Sánchez‐Moreno, M., Mena, B. B., Alegre, L. M., & Ortega‐Becerra, M. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13775 · Cited by 111
Training for strength and hypertrophy: an evidence-based approach.
Morton, R. W., Colenso-Semple, L., & Phillips, S. M. (2019) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2019.04.006 · Cited by 100
Dankel, S. J., Counts, B. R., Barnett, B. E., Buckner, S. L., Abe, T., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25488 · Cited by 103
“Interestingly, the 1RM strength differences that are present upon completing low- or high-load training appear to be largely abolished when the 1RM test is performed periodically (every 3 weeks).(24) Our results appear to support these findings, and suggest that individuals looking to maximally increase 1RM strength s…”
ResultSarcopenia definition: Does it really matter? Implications for resistance training
Smith, C., Woessner, M. N., Sim, M., & Levinger, I. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101617 · Cited by 115
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“(26) reported performing familiarization sessions for the 1RM test.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHaun, C. T., Vann, C. G., Osburn, S. C., Mumford, P. W., Roberson, P. A., Romero, M. A., Fox, C. D., Johnson, C. A., Parry, H. A., Kavazis, A. N., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215267 · Cited by 106
“4 INTRODUCTION Weeks to months of resistance training increases skeletal muscle mean fiber crosssectional area (fCSA) [1-10].”
BackgroundLasevicius, T., Schoenfeld, B. J., Silva-Batista, C., Barros, T. D. S., Aihara, A. Y., Brendon, H., Longo, A. R., Tricoli, V., Peres, B. D. A., & Teixeira, E. L. (2022) · Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003454 · Cited by 95
“It has been suggested that low-load resistance training only promotes similar muscle hypertrophy to high load resistance training when the low load condition is performed to muscle failure (10,22,24,26).”
BackgroundAngleri, V., Ugrinowitsch, C., & Libardi, C. A. (2017) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-016-3529-1 · Cited by 96
Spiering, B. A., Mujika, I., Sharp, M. A., & Foulis, S. A. (2021) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003964 · Cited by 101
“Finally, although multiple methods exist for defining the “intensity” of strength training (8,33), the studies referenced in this review paper have defined “intensity” as the load used relative to the individual’s maximal ability.”
Joanisse, S., Lim, C., McKendry, J., Mcleod, J. C., Stokes, T., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.21588.1 · Cited by 90
Baz-Valle, E., Fontes-Villalba, M., & Santos-Concejero, J. (2021) · Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002776 · Cited by 84
“(18) HR: 3 3 20–25RM/10 12 wk, 43 No No significant differences between groups, and similar effect sizes LR: 3 3 8–12RM/10 Schoenfeld et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, D., Loenneke, J. P., Ye, X., Bemben, D. A., Beck, T. W., Larson, R. D., & Bemben, M. G. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25626 · Cited by 89
“To illustrate, a previous study showed that periodic practice of the 1-RM test can largely eliminate the differences observed between HL and low-load training.(23,24)”
MethodEvidence-Based Guidelines for Resistance Training Volume to Maximize Muscle Hypertrophy
Schoenfeld, B. J., & Grgić, J. (2017) · Strength and conditioning journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000363 · Cited by 87
“Alternatively, VL seems to be of little consequence to low-load RT protocols because studies show similar muscle growth when comparing training with low versus moderate loads despite a substantially higher VL in the low-load conditions (22,24,29).”
BackgroundWeakley, J. J. S., Cowley, N., Schoenfeld, B. J., Read, D. B., Timmins, R. G., García‐Ramos, A., & McGuckian, T. B. (2023) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01877-2 · Cited by 97
Resistance exercise–induced changes in muscle phenotype are load dependent
LIM, C., KIM, H. J., MORTON, R. W., HARRIS, R., PHILLIPS, S. M., JEONG, T. S., & KIM, C. K. (2019) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000002088 · Cited by 81
“However, similar to recent research (7), we observed similar RET-induced increases in both type I and type II muscle fiber CSA when RET was performed to volitional fatigue (i.”
BackgroundResultThe Role of the Skeletal Muscle Secretome in Mediating Endurance and Resistance Training Adaptations
Leuchtmann, A. B., Adak, V., Dilbaz, S., & Handschin, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.709807 · Cited by 84
Loenneke, J. P., Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., & Abe, T. (2019) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-019-01106-9 · Cited by 82
Endocrinological Roles for Testosterone in Resistance Exercise Responses and Adaptations
Hooper, D. R., Kraemer, W. J., Focht, B. C., Volek, J. S., DuPont, W. H., Caldwell, L. K., & Maresh, C. M. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0698-y · Cited by 83
The acute and chronic effects of “NO LOAD” resistance training
Counts, B. R., Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., Jessee, M. B., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Laurentino, G. C., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.024 · Cited by 77
The problem Of muscle hypertrophy: Revisited
Buckner, S. L., Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., Mouser, J. G., Counts, B. R., & Loenneke, J. P. (2016) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25420 · Cited by 80
“In support, Morton et al.(12) showed that multiple exposures to a 1RM during a low-load resistance training program can largely abolish the difference in 1RM strength typically observed between such training modalities.”
BackgroundExercise Snacking to Improve Muscle Function in Healthy Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Perkin, O. J., McGuigan, P. M., & Stokes, K. (2019) · Journal of Aging Research · doi:10.1155/2019/7516939 · Cited by 74
“Recent evidence suggests that low-load resistance training can also be efficacious in increasing muscle strength, particularly in an untrained population, albeit to a lesser degree in comparison to high-load resistance training [10, 11].”
Kirk, B., Mooney, K., Amirabdollahian, F., & Khaiyat, O. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00445 · Cited by 72
Scarpelli, M. C., Nóbrega, S. R., Santanielo, N., Alvarez, I. F., Otoboni, G. B., Ugrinowitsch, C., & Libardi, C. A. (2020) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003558 · Cited by 74
Resistance training variables for optimization of muscle hypertrophy: an umbrella review.
Bernárdez-Vázquez, R., Raya-González, J., Castillo, D., & Beato, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.949021 · Cited by 67
“This leads to questioning the need to implement periodization models in resistance training programs (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSchwanbeck, S. R., Cornish, S. M., Barss, T., & Chilibeck, P. D. (2020) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003349 · Cited by 64
Grgić, J., & Schoenfeld, B. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00402 · Cited by 65
“Such events inadvertently bias results in favor of the high-load condition given that a high level of fatigue is obligatory to achieve hypertrophic benefits when training with lower loads (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodMesquita, P. H. C., Vann, C. G., Phillips, S. M., McKendry, J., Young, K. C., Kavazis, A. N., & Roberts, M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.725866 · Cited by 62
Weakley, J. J. S., Schoenfeld, B. J., Ljungberg, J. K., Halson, S. L., & Phillips, S. M. (2023) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-023-00578-4 · Cited by 73
“Evidence suggests that full motor unit activation can be achieved within 3–5 reps of concentric failure [57], with lower load volitional interruption allowing comparable increases in strength and CSA compared to training with higher loads or lower loads to failure [4, 13, 15, 17].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSteele, J., Raubold, K., KEMMLER, W. K., Fisher, J. P., Gentil, P., & Gießing, J. (2017) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2017/2541090 · Cited by 63
“Adaptations to heavier- or lighter-loads seem similar when repetitions are performed to MF in older adults [40] similarly to findings in both adolescent [41] and young adult populations [42].”
Resultde Lacio, M. L., Vieira, J. G., Trybulski, R., Campos, Y., Santana, D., Filho, J. E., Novaes, J. D. S., Vianna, J. M., & Wilk, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111237 · Cited by 57
“Additionally, studies that applied this technique chose the vastus lateralis for the analysis [23,28,29,46], which limits the extrapolation of results to other muscles that might respond differently to the same exercise protocol.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDamas, F., Angleri, V., Phillips, S. M., Witard, O. C., Ugrinowitsch, C., Santanielo, N., Soligon, S. D., Costa, L. A. R., Lixandrão, M. E., Conceição, M. S., et al. (2019) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00350.2019 · Cited by 58
Stokes, T., Tripp, T. R., Murphy, K., Morton, R. W., Oikawa, S. Y., Choi, H. L., McGrath, J., McGlory, C., MacDonald, M. J., & Phillips, S. M. (2021) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14683 · Cited by 54
“We studied 34 male participants from a previously published investigation (Age, 23 ± 3 yrs; Body Mass, 86.6 ± 13.5 kg; BMI, 26.4 ± 3.3 kg/m2; (Morton et al., 2016)).”
InfluentialEffects of rest intervals and training loads on metabolic stress and muscle hypertrophy
Fink, J. E., Kikuchi, N., & Nakazato, K. (2016) · Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging · doi:10.1111/cpf.12409 · Cited by 54
“Our findings are in line with a recent study showing no correlation between acute systemic hormonal elevations and muscle hypertrophy (Morton et al., 2016).”
ResultIkezoe, T., Kobayashi, T., Nakamura, M., & Ichihashi, N. (2017) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002278 · Cited by 53
“(16) suggested that when partic ipants were tested periodically for maximal strength, the increases in muscular strength were not significant ly different between the LLHR and HLLR groups.”
BackgroundMolecular Transducers of Human Skeletal Muscle Remodeling under Different Loading States
Stokes, T., Timmons, J. A., Crossland, H., Tripp, T. R., Murphy, K., McGlory, C., Mitchell, C. J., Oikawa, S. Y., Morton, R. W., Phillips, B. E., et al. (2020) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107980 · Cited by 52
“0 gene chips; Data S1), each with DXAmeasured changes in LLM following exercise training (Mitchell et al., 2014; Morton et al., 2016; Phillips et al., 2017) to establish which of the 2,000 HypAt-regulated genes were potential regulators of growth.”
MethodSteele, J., Endres, A., Fisher, J. P., Gentil, P., & Gießing, J. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.4105 · Cited by 52
“These secondary variables include; load (Morton et al., 2016; Schoenfeld et al., 2015; Schoenfeld et al., 2016; Fisher, Ironside & Steele, 2016), repetition duration (Schoenfeld, Ogborn & Krieger, 2015), and the use of advanced or complicated training methods such as pre-exhaustion (Fisher et al.”
BackgroundVigotsky, A. D., Halperin, I., Lehman, G. J., Trajano, G. S., & Vieira, T. (2017) · doi:10.31236/osf.io/fkbx8 · Cited by 56
Refalo, M. C., Hamilton, D. L., Paval, D. R., Gallagher, I. J., Feros, S. A., & Fyfe, J. J. (2021) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2021.1898094 · Cited by 45
“Four of the six studies (Lim et al., 2019; Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016; Taaffe et al., 1996) demonstrated equivalent improvements in muscle fCSA amongst both loading conditions and two studies (Campos et al., 2002; Schuenke et al., 2012) revealed greater improvements for high-load…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBurley, S. D., Drain, J. R., Sampson, J. A., & Groeller, H. (2018) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2018.06.018 · Cited by 65
Arterial stiffness is reduced regardless of resistance training load in young men
AU, J. S., OIKAWA, S. Y., Morton, R. W., MACDONALD, M. J., & PHILLIPS, S. M. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001106 · Cited by 50
Schoenfeld, B. J., Vigotsky, A. D., Grgic, J., Haun, C., Contreras, B., Delcastillo, K., Francis, A., Cote, G., & Alto, A. (2020) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14427 · Cited by 56
“…muscles has produced conflicting re-sults on the topic, with some studies showing differential fiber-type specific hypertrophic effects between loading conditions (Netreba et al., 2013; Vinogradova et al., 2013) and others showing negligible differences (Lim et al., 2019; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundVigotsky, A., Halperin, I., Trajano, G., & Vieira, T. (2022) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01619-2 · Cited by 48
Bell, Z. W., Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Mouser, J. G., Mattocks, K. T., Dankel, S. J., Abe, T., & Loenneke, J. P. (2018) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-018-3877-0 · Cited by 48
Ozaki, H., Kubota, A., Natsume, T., Loenneke, J. P., Abe, T., Machida, S., & Naito, H. (2018) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2017.1331042 · Cited by 47
“These findings have been recently confirmed in resistance trained individuals (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultWilson, M. T., Ryan, A. M. F., Vallance, S., Dias-Dougan, A., Dugdale, J. H., Hunter, A. M., Hamilton, D. L., & Macgregor, L. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.01493 · Cited by 47
Haun, C. T., Mumford, P. W., Roberson, P. A., Romero, M. A., Mobley, C. B., Kephart, W. C., Anderson, R. G., Colquhoun, R. J., Muddle, T. W. D., Luera, M. J., et al. (2017) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13457 · Cited by 48
Grgić, J., Mikulić, P., Podnar, H., & Pedišić, Ž. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.3695 · Cited by 62
“However, as the recent study by Morton et al. (2016) has shown, even trained individuals may achieve robust gains in strength and muscle mass employing a non-periodized approach, if adequate progressive overload is used.”
BackgroundGrgic, J. (2020) · Journal of Human Kinetics · doi:10.2478/hukin-2020-0013 · Cited by 45
“However, it also needs to be mentioned that adherence to the training programs was reported only in one study (Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLong-Term Strength Adaptation: A 15-Year Analysis of Powerlifting Athletes
Latella, C., Teo, W., Spathis, J. G., & van den Hoek, D. (2020) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000003657 · Cited by 49
Li, Y., Jing, Y., Wang, Y., Jianming, Z., Zeng, G., Yiting, T., & Li, S. (2021) · Journal of International Medical Research · doi:10.1177/03000605211039564 · Cited by 44
“Some studies have shown that an increase in synthetic hormones cannot cause muscle hypertrophy.(24,25) Other studies have shown that an increase in synthetic hormones improves muscle fitness.”
BackgroundHickmott, L. M., Chilibeck, P. D., Shaw, K. A., & Butcher, S. J. (2022) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-021-00404-9 · Cited by 56
Sexton, C. L., Godwin, J. S., McIntosh, M. C., Ruple, B. A., Osburn, S. C., Hollingsworth, B. R., Kontos, N. J., Agostinelli, P. J., Kavazis, A. N., Ziegenfuss, T. N., et al. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12020263 · Cited by 47
Ribeiro, A. S., Schoenfeld, B. J., de Souza, M. F., Tomeleri, C. M., Silva, A. M., Teixeira, D. D. C., Sardinha, L. B., & Cyrino, E. S. (2017) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2017.1310932 · Cited by 43
“In fact, recent research shows that load manipulation is not a critical component in inducing muscle hypertrophy (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016; Schoenfeld, Peterson, Ogborn, Contreras, & Sonmez, 2015; Schoenfeld et al., 2014, 2016).”
BackgroundA Novel Amino Acid Composition Ameliorates Short-Term Muscle Disuse Atrophy in Healthy Young Men
Holloway, T. M., McGlory, C., McKellar, S. R., Morgan, A. K., Hamill, M., Afeyan, R., Comb, W. C., Confer, S., Zhao, P., Hinton, M., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00105 · Cited by 43
“Samples were treated and analyzed as described previously for fiber type and size (36, 37).”
MethodAcute fatigue, and perceptual responses to resistance exercise
Fisher, J. P., Farrow, J., & Steele, J. (2017) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.25645 · Cited by 42
“Current research supports similar strength and hypertrophy adaptations from both high- and lowload resistance training interventions.(4,6,23,32) However, we have presented significantly greater decrement in MVIT immediately after exercising at LL compared with HL and FR conditions.”
BackgroundMethodResultBlood flow restriction does not augment low force contractions taken to or near task failure
Buckner, S. L., Jessee, M. B., Dankel, S. J., Mattocks, K. T., Mouser, J. G., Bell, Z. W., Abe, T., Bentley, J. P., & Loenneke, J. P. (2020) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2019.1664640 · Cited by 41
Soligon, S. D., da Silva, D. G., Bergamasco, J. G. A., Angleri, V., Medalha, R. A., Dias, N. F., Nóbrega, S. R., César, M. D. C., & Libardi, C. A. (2020) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04446-x · Cited by 43
Cornish, S. M., Bugera, E. M., Duhamel, T. A., Peeler, J. D., & Anderson, J. E. (2020) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-020-04337-1 · Cited by 43
Is muscle growth a mechanism for increasing strength?
Loenneke, J. P., Dankel, S. J., Bell, Z. W., Buckner, S. L., Mattocks, K. T., Jessee, M. B., & Abe, T. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.02.030 · Cited by 44
Al‐Ozairi, E., Alsaeed, D., Alroudhan, D., Voase, N., Hasan, A., Gill, J. M. R., Sattar, N. A., Welsh, P. I., Gray, C. M., Boonpor, J., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa835 · Cited by 41
Oikawa, S. Y., Bahniwal, R., Holloway, T. M., Lim, C., McLeod, J. C., McGlory, C., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12051235 · Cited by 41
“similar increases in muscle mass and strength over a training period [3,4].”
BackgroundLecce, E., Amoruso, P., Felici, F., & Bazzucchi, I. (2025) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp289716 · Cited by 56
Ismail, A. D., Alkhayl, F. F. A., Wilson, J., Johnston, L., Gill, J. M. R., & Gray, S. R. (2019) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep087435 · Cited by 39
“Indeed, it has been demonstrated recently that if exercise is performed to volitional failure then gains in muscle mass and strength are similar regardless of the load at which exercise is performed (Mitchell et al., 2012; Morton et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Morton, R. W., Oikawa, S. Y., Wavell, C. G., Mazara, N., McGlory, C., Quadrilatero, J., Baechler, B. L., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Phillips, Stuart M.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2016-05-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 129-138
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- PMC
- PMC4967245
- OpenAlex
- W2351799718
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 14
- FWCI
- 57.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science and Engineering Council of Canada (RGPIN-2015-04613)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- resistance training, muscle hypertrophy, strength gain, training load, resistance-trained men, anabolic hormones, lean body mass, muscle fiber cross-sectional area, unilateral training
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Hormones, Humans, Hypertrophy, Male, Weight Lifting, Exercise, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Strength, Resistance Training, Young Adult
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