New Frontiers in the Future of Aging: From Successful Aging of the Young Old to the Dilemmas of the Fourth Age
Abstract
We review research findings on the oldest old that demonstrate that the fourth age entails a level of biocultural incompleteness, vulnerability and unpredictability that is distinct from the positive views of the third age (young old). The oldest old are at the limits of their functional capacity and science and social policy are constrained in terms of intervention. New theoretical and practical endeavors are required to deal with the challenges of increased numbers of the oldest old and the associated prevalence of frailty and forms of psychological mortality (e.g., loss of identity, psychological autonomy and a sense of control). Investigation of the fourth age is a new and challenging interdisciplinary research territory. Future study and discussion should focus on the critical question of whether the continuing major investments into extending the life span into the fourth age actually reduce the opportunities of an increasing number of people to live and die in dignity.
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This finding is conceptually consistent with life span tenets about the vulnerabilities and constraints that appear in very old age and at the end of life.
“Conceptually, this finding is consistent with life span tenets about the vulnerabilities and constraints that appear in very old age and at the end of life (Baltes & Smith, 2003).”
From Cohort differences in cognitive aging and terminal decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study. (2011) · cites this paper as Baltes & Smith, 2003
Despite an increasing need for cultural resources, there is an ever declining efficiency of those resources to overcome age-related decrements.
“These notions suggest that despite an increasing need for cultural resources, there is an ever declining efficiency of those resources to overcome age-related decrements.”
From Cohort differences in cognitive aging and terminal decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study. (2011) · cites this paper as Baltes & Smith, 2003
Cites
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“For example, people who fall into the lower and upper end of old age (for example, a 69 year old versus an 89 year old) are distinct not only in physical but also in psychological terms (Baltes & Smith, 2003).”
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- Authors
- Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- ORCID
- Smith, Jacqui
- Venue
- Gerontology
- Publisher
- S. Karger AG
- Published
- 2003
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 123-135
- ISSN
- 0304-324X (ISSN-L)
- 1423-0003
- OpenAlex
- W2060400674
- Cited by
- 1,374
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 77 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 69 · 2013: 87 · 2012: 66
- FWCI
- 22.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Gerontology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Aging, Elder Care, and Social Issues
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Aging, Health, and Disability
- Keywords
- oldest old, fourth age, young-old, successful aging, frailty, identity loss, psychological autonomy, perceived control, functional capacity, lifespan extension, aging policy, dignity in dying
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Cognition Disorders, Cultural Evolution, Dementia, Forecasting, Health Status, Humans, Quality of Life, Geriatric Assessment, Frail Elderly
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