Mechanisms responsible for sympathetic activation by cigarette smoking in humans.
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BACKGROUND: The pressor and tachycardic effects of cigarette smoking are associated with an increase in plasma catecholamines, suggesting the dependence of these effects on adrenergic stimulation. Whether the stimulation occurs at a central or a peripheral level and whether reflex mechanisms are involved is unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: In nine normotensive healthy subjects (age, 33.0 +/- 3.5 years, mean +/- SEM), we measured blood pressure (Finapres device), heart rate (ECG), calf blood flow and vascular resistance (venous occlusion plethysmography), plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine (high-performance liquid chromatography assay), and postganglionic muscle sympathetic nerve activity (microneurography from the peroneal nerve) while subjects were smoking a filter cigarette (nicotine content, 1.1 mg) or were in control condition. Cigarette smoking (which raised plasma nicotine measured by high-performance liquid chromatography from 1.0 +/- 0.9 to 44.2 +/- 7.1 ng/mL) markedly and significantly increased mean arterial pressure (+13.2 +/- 2.3%), heart rate (+30.3 +/- 4.7%), calf vascular resistance (+12.1 +/- 4.9%), plasma norepinephrine (+34.8 +/- 7.0%), and plasma epinephrine (+90.5 +/- 39.0%). In contrast, muscle sympathetic nerve activity showed a marked reduction (integrated activity -31.8 +/- 5.1%, P < .01). The reduction was inversely related to the increase in mean arterial pressure (r = -.67, P < .05), but the slope of the relation was markedly less (-54.1 +/- 7.5%, P < .05) than that obtained by intravenous infusion of phenylephrine in absence of smoking. The hemodynamic and neurohumoral changes were still visible 30 minutes after smoking and occurred again on smoking a second cigarette. Sham smoking was devoid of any hemodynamic and neurohumoral effect. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the hypothesis that in humans the sympathetic activation induced by smoking depends on an increased release and/or a reduced clearance of catecholamines at the neuroeffector junctions. Central sympathetic activity is inhibited by smoking, presumably via a baroreceptor stimulation triggered by the smoking-related pressor response. The baroreflex is impaired by smoking, however, indicating that partial inability to reflexly counteract the effect of sympathetic activation is also responsible for the pressor response.
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Heart rate cannot be taken as either a marker of cardiac sympathetic adrenergic activity or a reliable indicator of sympathetic activity to other regional circulations.
“These and other studies24,25 indicate that despite the ease of measurement, heart rate cannot be taken as either a marker of cardiac sympathetic adrenergic activity or a reliable indicator of sympathetic activity to other regional circulations.”
From The Sympathetic Nervous System Alterations in Human Hypertension (2015) · cites this paper as [24]
Nicotine instigates cardiovascular constriction by direct stimulation of epinephrine and norepinephrine release from peripheral sympathetic nerve endings.
“Specifically, nicotine instigates cardiovascular constriction by direct stimulation of epinephrine and norepinephrine release from peripheral sympathetic nerve endings [40].”
From Acute Effects of Nicotine on Physiological and Subjective Sexual Arousal in Nonsmoking Men: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial (2008) · cites this paper as [40]
The attenuation of physiological sexual arousal following nicotine administration is consistent with literature delineating nicotine's effects on sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity.
“The attenuation of physiological sexual arousal following nicotine administration is consistent with literature delineating nicotine’s effects on sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity.”
From Acute Effects of Nicotine on Physiological and Subjective Sexual Arousal in Nonsmoking Men: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial (2008) · cites this paper as [40]
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BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMechanisms Underlying Cerebrovascular Effects of Cigarette Smoking in Rats In Vivo
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A review of the neuropsychological effects of commonly used prescription medications
Stein, R. A., & Strickland, T. L. (1998) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/13.3.259 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Nicotine signaling and progression of chronic kidney disease in smokers
Jain, G., & Jaimes, E. A. (2013) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2013.07.014 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Cigarette smoking causes sympathetic stimulation, and a related increase in blood pressure and heart rate that is mediated via direct stimulation of postganglionic sympathetic nerve endings, leading to an increase of plasma concentrations of norepinephrine and epinephrine; these effects are mediated by nicotine, and a…”
Factors associated with hypotension and bradycardia after carotid angioplasty and stenting
Lin, P. H., Zhou, W., Kougias, P., et al. (2007) · Journal of Vascular Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2007.07.020 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Newly Reported Hypertension After Military Combat Deployment in a Large Population-Based Study
Granado, N. S., Smith, T. C., Swanson, G. M., Harris, R. B., Shahar, E., Smith, B., Boyko, E. J., Wells, T. S., & Ryan, M. A. K. (2009) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.109.132555 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Walker, J. F., Collins, L. C., Rowell, P., Goldsmith, L. J., Moffatt, R. J., & STAMFORD, B. A. (1999) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622299050011501 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Blood Pressure Control in Smokers with Arterial Hypertension Who Switched to Electronic Cigarettes
Polosa, R., Morjaria, J. B., Caponnetto, P., Battaglia, E., Russo, C., Ciampi, C. M., Adams, G. L., & Bruno, C. M. (2016) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph13111123 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Given the well-established acute effect of smoking on immediate vasopressor and tachycardic responses [31,32] and increased arterial stiffness [33], the observed reduction in BP after long-lasting smoking reduction or abstinence is not surprising.”
BackgroundA Review of the Neuropsychological Effects of Commonly Used Prescription Medications
Stein, R. A., & Strickland, T. L. (1998) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1016/s0887-6177(97)00027-9 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Nicotine, a cholinergic agonist, is another stimulant in widespread use which, when taken in via tobacco, may exert positive but very short-lived effects on attention due to only a brief (e.g., 10–15 minutes) surge in blood levels (Grassi et al., 1994).”
Effects of smoking cessation on β-cell function, insulin sensitivity, body weight, and appetite
Stadler, M., Tomann, L., Storka, A., Wolzt, M., Peric, S., Bieglmayer, C., Pacini, G., Dickson, S. L., Brath, H., Bech, P., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-13-0590 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Guías de práctica clínica para el tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial 2007
(ESH), G. D. T. P. E. T. D. L. H. A. D. L. S. E. D. H., & de Cardiología, D. L. S. E. (2007) · Revista Española de Cardiología · doi:10.1157/13109650 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Nodular Glomerulosclerosis in the Nondiabetic Smoker
Nasr, S. H., & D’Agati, V. D. (2007) · Journal of the American Society of Nephrology · doi:10.1681/asn.2006121328 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Bhatnagar, A. (2016) · Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports · doi:10.1007/s12170-016-0505-6 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Phung, V., Jung, W.-S., Nguyen, T.-A., et al. (2018) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/c8nr06444j · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Evaluation of Macular Perfusion in Healthy Smokers by Using Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
Ayhan, Z., Kaya, M., Öztürk, T., et al. (2017) · Ophthalmic surgery, lasers & imaging retina · doi:10.3928/23258160-20170802-03 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Gonzalez, J. E., & Cooke, W. H. (2020) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00448.2020 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Smoking tobacco cigarettes is accompanied by increases in arterial pressure, heart rate, vascular resistance, and circulating catecholamines (6, 7).”
BackgroundNEW INSIGHTS INTO THE SYMPATHETIC, ENDOTHELIAL AND CORONARY EFFECTS OF NICOTINE
Adamopoulos, D. N., van de Borne, P., & Argacha, J. (2008) · Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2008.04896.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Nicotine activates sympathetic neurotransmission by a direct effect on the central nervous system(8) by stimulating ganglionic sympathetic neurotransmission(9) and by facilitating catecholamine release by postganglionic nerve endings.(10) This sympathetic activation increases myocardial contractility and heart rate th…”
BackgroundLin, S., Young, J. G., Logan, R. W., Tchetgen, E. J. T., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2016) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000609 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The Effect of Cigarette Smoking on Exercise Capacity in Patients with Intermittent Claudication
Gardner, A. W. (1996) · Vascular Medicine · doi:10.1177/1358863x9600100302 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Kerr, D. M. I., Brooksbank, K. J. M., Taylor, R. G., Pinel, K., Rios, F. J. O., Touyz, R. M., & Delles, C. (2018) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/hjh.0000000000001890 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“[15] which demonstrated significant increases in HR, SBP and DBP which were accompanied by increases in plasma noradrenaline and adrenaline levels.”
BackgroundBONNAR, C. E., Davie, A. P., Caruana, L. R., et al. (1999) · Heart · doi:10.1136/hrt.81.3.297 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension
(2013) · Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.rec.2013.07.015 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Physiology in Medicine: Peripheral arterial disease
Muller, M. D., Reed, A. B., Leuenberger, U. A., & Sinoway, L. I. (2013) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00885.2013 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Most patients with PAD suffer from comorbid conditions such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and renal disease, and many are cigarette smokers, conditions that by themselves are known to be associated with sympathetic activation and vascular dysfunction (15, 29, 34, 62).”
BackgroundMravec, B., Tibenský, M., Horváthová, Ľ., & Babál, P. (2019) · Cancer Prevention Research · doi:10.1158/1940-6207.capr-19-0346 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Nicotine activates the sympathoadrenal system Importantly, it is well known that nicotine increases the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine due to its stimulatory effect at several levels of the sympathoadrenal system (87).”
BackgroundSjoberg, N. J., & Saint, D. A. (2011) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr004 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Dimitriadis, K. S., Narkiewicz, K., Leontsinis, I., Konstantinidis, D., Mihas, C. C., Andrikou, I., Thomopoulos, C., Tousoulis, D. M., & Tsioufis, K. P. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19063237 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Changes in MSNA, SSNA, blood pressure and heart rate were calculated for the last 2 min of each smoking phase, when the effects of smoking are especially marked [15,16].”
MethodAcute effects of cigarette smoking on the heart rate variability of taxi drivers during work
Kobayashi, F., Watanabe, T., Akamatsu, Y., et al. (2005) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.919 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Acute short-term passive smoke exposure has been shown to alter cardiac autonomic function (32) or elicit a modest increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity in healthy nonsmokers (44).”
BackgroundCigarette smoking as a risk factor for atherosclerosis and renal disease: Novel pathogenic insights
Mercado, C., & Jaimes, E. A. (2007) · Current Hypertension Reports · doi:10.1007/s11906-007-0012-8 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Regulation of Feeding-Associated Peptides and Receptors by Nicotine
Li, M. D., Parker, S. L., & Kane, J. K. (2000) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1385/mn:22:1-3:143 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Cardiovascular autonomic effects of electronic cigarette use: a systematic review
Garcia, P. D., GORNBEIN, J. A., & Middlekauff, H. R. (2020) · Clinical Autonomic Research · doi:10.1007/s10286-020-00683-4 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Participation of the Hypothalamus-Hypophysis Axis in the Sympathetic Activation of Human Obesity
Grassi, G. M., Seravalle, G., Dell’Oro, R., Turri, C., Pasqualinotto, L., Colombo, M., & Mancia, G. (2001) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hy1201.096117 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationCigarette smoke condensate aggravates renal injury in the renal ablation model
Odoni, G., Ogata, E., Viedt, C., Amann, K., Ritz, E., & Orth, S. R. (2002) · Kidney International · doi:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2002.00382.x · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Oliveira, E., Pinheiro, C. R., Santos-Silva, A. P., Trevenzoli, I. H., Abreu‐Villaça, Y., Neto, J. F. N., dos Reis, A. M., Passos, M. C. F., de Moura, E. G., & Lisboa, P. C. (2010) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/joe-09-0430 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“After smoking, plasma levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline rise (Grassi et al. 1994, Walker et al. 1999, Reselandn et al. 2005); these factors play an important role in the development of hypertension.”
BackgroundThe short-term effect of water-pipe smoking on the baroreflex control of heart rate in normotensives
Al-Kubati, M., Al-Kubati, A. S., Al’Absi, M., & Fišer, B. (2006) · Autonomic Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2006.03.007 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Obesity and Endocrine Dysfunction Programmed by Maternal Smoking in Pregnancy and Lactation
Lisboa, P. C., OLIVEIRA, E. B. D., & de Moura, E. G. (2012) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2012.00437 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“After the consumption of a few cigarettes, increases in ADH, GH, glucocorticoids, epinephrine, and leptin can be observed (Yeh and Barbieri, 1989; Grassi et al., 1994; Walker et al., 1999; Reseland et al., 2005).”
BackgroundHarte, C. B., & Meston, C. M. (2008) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00778.x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Graham, L., SMITH, P. A., Stoker, J. B., Mackintosh, A., & Mary, D. (2004) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20030376 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Harte, C. B., & Meston, C. M. (2008) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00637.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Fedorowski, A., Stavenow, L., Hedblad, B., Berglund, G. L., Nilsson, P. M., & Melander, O. (2010) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/hjh.0b013e3283350e8c · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Axelsson, T., Jansson, P., Smith, U., et al. (2001) · Journal of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.2001.00840.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Disparity of autonomic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus
Huggett, R. J., SCOTT, E. M., Gilbey, S. G., Bannister, J., Mackintosh, A., & Mary, D. A. S. G. (2004) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-004-1601-6 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“We avoided the potential effects of race, age, body weight, time of day, dietary sodium intake, arterial blood pressure level, visceral distension, alcohol, nicotine and exercise on the autonomic drive [36, 38–46].”
Background
- Authors
- Grassi, G., Seravalle, G., Calhoun, D. A., Bolla, G. B., Giannattasio, C., Marabini, M., Del Bo, A., & Mancia, G.
- Affiliations
- Azienda Ospedaliera San Gerardo (IT)
- Cattedra Medicina Interna, Ospedale S. Gerardo dei Tintori, Monza, Italy.
- Venue
- Circulation
- Published
- 1994-07
- Volume
- 90
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 248-253
- ISSN
- 0009-7322 (ISSN-L)
- 1524-4539
- OpenAlex
- W2034576097
- Cited by
- 394
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 4.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Circulation (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5k11hl002568-05, 5k08hl003220-02)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL 03220, HL02568)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Blood Pressure and Hypertension Studies
- Keywords
- cigarette smoking, sympathetic nervous system, baroreflex, baroreflex sensitivity, plasma catecholamines, norepinephrine, epinephrine, muscle sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, heart rate, vascular resistance, nicotine, hemodynamic response, reflex mechanisms, phenylephrine infusion, normotensive subjects
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Blood Pressure, Female, Heart Rate, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Muscles, Norepinephrine, Phenylephrine, Smoking, Sympathetic Nervous System
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