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A Longitudinal Study of Hypertension Risk Factors and Their Relation to Cardiovascular Disease: The Strong Heart Study
Abstract
This study estimated hypertension incidence and explored hypertension risk factors and their association with cardiovascular disease. Data collected from 4549 American Indian participants in the 3 exams of the Strong Heart Study were used. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg, or current use of antihypertensive medication. Generalized linear models were used to identify the risk factors for hypertension and the correlates of blood pressures. Cox proportional models with time-dependent covariates and the mixed models were used to explore the association of hypertension with cardiovascular disease. There was no sex difference in hypertension. After adjustment for other risk factors, the risks of developing hypertension among subgroups in each characterized group were as follows: prehypertensive versus normotensive, 3.21 times; macroalbuminuria and microalbuminuria versus normal, 3.47 and 1.72; diabetic versus nondiabetic, 1.56; overweight and obese versus normal weight, 1.30 and 1.51; and current alcohol drinking versus not, 1.22. Moreover, systolic blood pressure was significantly and positively associated with age, obesity, and albuminuria and negatively with smoking. After adjusting all other risk factors, those pretreated, untreated, controlled, and uncontrolled hypertensive participants had &1.74, 1.81, 2.19, and 2.77 times higher risks of developing cardiovascular disease compared with normotensive participants, respectively. In 45- to 74-year-old American Indians, the risk of developing hypertension was rising. Prehypertensive participants had 3.2/1.74 times higher risk of developing hypertension/cardiovascular disease than normotensive participants. Age, diabetes, and macro/microalbuminuria were independently significant risk factors of both hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
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“In most of the studies examined, peak reduction in BP compared with baseline occurred at 2-3 h after the consumption of dietary nitrate, which is the same time at which peak plasma nitrite concentrations have been observed (81,82,86,87,89,92) ,”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“In addition, lower doses of dietary nitrate (100 g, 2 mmol) were shown to reduce DBP (86) , suggesting that even relatively small doses, that are easily achievable in the diet, have BP-lowering effects.”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“suggesting that dietary nitrate present in the beetroot was responsible for the BP-lowering effects, whereas betalains had minimal effect.”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“The results of the study showed that there were no significant differences in BP reduction between bread enriched with 100 g red or white beetroot (both 2 mmol nitrate) (86) ,”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“The study by Hobbs et al. (86) demonstrated that the ingestion of three doses of beetroot juice (100, 250 and 500 g containing 2, 6 and 11 mmol nitrate, respectively) dosedependently reduced SBP over a period of 24 h, with dose-dependent effects being less apparent for DBP.”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“For systolic BP, R 2 0•45 (P¼0•033); for diastolic BP, R 2 0•27 (P¼ 0•233).”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
In the citing paper
“For systolic BP, R 2 0•45 (P¼0•033); for diastolic BP, R 2 0•27 (P¼ 0•233).”
From The effects of dietary nitrate on blood pressure and endothelial function: a review of human intervention studies (2013) · cites this paper as [86]
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“anti-hypertensive or lipid-lowering therapy), but not for risk factors per se; such statistical adjustment may not have taken into account patients who are undiagnosed or untreated and thus at a higher risk for CVD [ 24 ].”
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BackgroundResultDietary inorganic nitrate: From villain to hero in metabolic disease?
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InfluentialPrevalence and Risk Factors for Hypertension in Adults Living in Central Development Region of Nepal
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“U N C O R R E C risk factors (CVRF), such as hypertension [12], diabetes [13], smoking [14] and hypercholesterolemia [15], are associated with endothelial dysfunction [16].”
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Proinflammation and Hypertension: A Population‐Based Study
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MTHFR677TT genotype and disease risk: is there a modulating role for B-vitamins?
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“Following ribo fl avin intervention (1 · 6mg/d for 16 weeks), systolic BP decreased signi fi cantly, a fi nding which con fi rmed that the BP-lowering effects of ribo fl avin in individuals with the MTHFR 677TT genotype were not con fi ned to high-risk CVD patients but also applied to hypertensive individuals generally (51)…”
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Cardiovascular Health among U.S. Indigenous Peoples: A Holistic and Sex-Specific Systematic Review
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“…and was present in 12 articles (Jernigan et al. 2010; Xu et al. 2006; Harwell et al. 2001; Howard et al. 1998; Howard et al. 2000; Lee et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Denny et al. 2005; Levin et al. 2002; Rhoades et al. 2007) and included family history of diabetes as a risk…”
BackgroundInfluentialNo association between perfluoroalkyl chemicals and hypertension in children
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“Urban populations have greater access to fast foods [32,33] and tend to lead a sedentary lifestyle [34] that contribute to the rising prevalence of obesity, an important risk factor of hypertension [35,36].”
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“H ypertension (HTN) is the main risk factor leading to cardiovascular events.(1) In addition, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and different phenotypes of glucose intolerance are rising globally, resulting in a higher incidence and burden of their complications.”
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Prehypertension is associated with insulin resistance
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Postgraduate Symposium The MTHFR C677T polymorphism, B-vitamins and blood pressure
Wilson, C. P., McNulty, H., Scott, J. M., Strain, J., & Ward, M. (2009) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665109991728 · Cited by 29
“High blood pressure or hypertension, defined as a blood pressure (BP) of >140/90mmHg((1)), is a major risk factor for CVD, with subjects with uncontrolled hypertension being at approximately three times greater risk of developing CVD compared with subjects who are normotensive((2)).”
BackgroundPredictors of Significant Short-Term Increases in Blood Pressure in a Community-Based Population
Aiyer, A., Kip, K. E., Mulukutla, S. R., Marroquin, O. C., Hipps, L., & Reís, S. E. (2007) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.06.021 · Cited by 28
C1 metabolism and CVD outcomes in older adults
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“a blood pressure of 140/90mmHg or greater) is estimated to carry an almost threefold greater risk of developing CVD((26)), while treating hypertension substantially reduces cardiovascular events, and stroke in particular((27)).”
BackgroundAssociations of cardiovascular risk factors in Al Ain- United Arab Emirates
AlKetbi, L. B., Revel, A. D., Nagelkerke, N. J. D., Jaber, T. M., Omar, A. O., Ahmed, N. M., Nazirudeen, M. K., Sayed, M. F. A., Nour, F. A., & Abdouni, S. (2009) · Cardiovascular Diabetology · doi:10.1186/1475-2840-8-21 · Cited by 27
“the risk associated with obesity may differ between smokers and non-smokers) between these risk factors have been reported in different studies [2-5].”
ResultEffects of cigarette smoking on blood pressure stratified by BMI in Mongolian population, China
Li, H., Tong, W., Wang, A., Lin, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2010) · Blood Pressure · doi:10.3109/08037050903516300 · Cited by 27
“There were also some prospective studies (8,26,27) showing that there is no signifi cant positive association or there is a negative association between smoking and BP.”
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Hypertension in Rural India: The Contribution of Socioeconomic Position
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Two-hour glucose predicts the development of hypertension over 5 years: the AusDiab study
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Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated With Prehypertension
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Self-citationThe Relationship between Uric Acid and Hypertension in Adults in Fako Division, SW Region Cameroon
Assob, J. C. N. (2014) · Journal of Nutrition & Food Sciences · doi:10.4172/2155-9600.1000257 · Cited by 22
“Evidence from a number of studies [2224] suggest that uric acid be added to the list of conventional risk factors of hypertension like obesity [25,26], age [27,28] renal disease [10,29], diabetes mellitus [30,31].”
BackgroundZhao, Y., Sun, H., Wang, B., Zhang, M., Luo, X., Ren, Y., Zhou, J., Han, C., Wang, C., Li, L., et al. (2017) · Journal of Diabetes and its Complications · doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2017.04.006 · Cited by 22
Liu, C., Luo, R., Wang, W., Peng, Z., Johnson, G. V. W., Kellems, R. E., & Xia, Y. (2019) · American Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1093/ajh/hpz018 · Cited by 22
Self-citationHeianza, Y., Kodama, S., Arase, Y., Hsieh, S. D., Yoshizawa, S. M., Tsuji, H., Saito, K., Tanaka, S., Hara, S., & Sone, H. (2014) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.113.02918 · Cited by 21
The Relationship Between Fasting Blood Glucose and Hypertension
Kuwabara, M., & Hisatome, I. (2019) · American Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1093/ajh/hpz147 · Cited by 21
The role of insomnia in the association between posttraumatic stress disorder and hypertension
Gaffey, A. E., Redeker, N. S., Rosman, L., Mullington, J. M., Brandt, C., Haskell, S. G., & Burg, M. M. (2019) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/hjh.0000000000002311 · Cited by 21
“poor diet, inactivity) [43], creating a golden opportunity for clinicians to assess and treat insomnia and behaviorally target cardiovascular risk.”
BackgroundHaruyama, Y., Muto, T., Nakade, M., Kobayashi, E., Ishisaki, K., & Yamasaki, A. (2009) · The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1620/tjem.217.259 · Cited by 21
“It is well-known that cardiovascular diseases develop from common and important risk factors such as being overweight, high blood pressure, and high serum levels of lipoprotein cholesterol and glucose (Castelli et al. 1986; Pechere-Bertschi et al. 2005; Daousi et al. 2006; Ridderstrale et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundPharmacokinetics of Nitrate and Nitrite Following Beetroot Juice Drink Consumption
Jakubcik, E. M., Rutherfurd-Markwick, K. J., Chabert, M., Wong, M., & Ali, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020281 · Cited by 23
“A major risk factor for the development of CVD is increased blood pressure (BP) or hypertension [2,3] which is often the target for CVD-based interventions.”
BackgroundPlasma apelin levels, blood pressure and cardiovascular risk factors in a coastal Chinese population
Zhu, P., Huang, F., Lin, F. Y., Yuan, Y., Chen, F., & Li, Q. (2013) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.3109/07853890.2013.833767 · Cited by 20
Undiagnosed hypertension in Croatia
Uhernik, A. I., Kralj, V., Čukelj, P., Biloš, I. B., Erceg, M., Benjak, T., & Stevanović, R. (2023) · Croatian Medical Journal · doi:10.3325/cmj.2023.64.4 · Cited by 19
Glucose and the risk of hypertension in first-degree relatives of patients with type 2 diabetes
Janghorbani, M., Bonnet, F., & Amini, M. (2015) · Hypertension Research · doi:10.1038/hr.2015.10 · Cited by 19
Lee, C. J., Lim, N.-K., Kim, H. C., Ihm, S., Lee, H., Park, H., & Park, S. (2014) · American Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1093/ajh/hpu186 · Cited by 19
Holme, T. C. (1990) · PubMed · Cited by 19
Screening For Hypertension Annually Compared With Current Practice
Garrison, G. M., & Oberhelman, S. S. (2013) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.1467 · Cited by 18
Hu, H., Nakagawa, T., Honda, T., Yamamoto, S., & Mizoue, T. (2024) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyae114 · Cited by 17
“18,19 Notably, HTP aerosols contain comparable levels of nicotine, 7 and HTP use has been found to induce endothelial dysfunction, 20 raising concerns about the potential adverse effects of HTPs on hypertension.”
BackgroundSasaki, N., Ozono, R., Maeda, R., & Higashi, Y. (2020) · BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care · doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2020-001500 · Cited by 17
The association between risk factors and hypertension in perak, malaysia.
Loh, K. W., Rani, F. A., Chan, T. C., Loh, H. Y., Ng, C., & Moy, F. M. (2013) · PubMed · Cited by 17
Gupta, P., Quan, T., Patel, C. J., Gu, A., & Campbell, J. C. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma · doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2022.101787 · Cited by 16
Morio, M., Inoue, M., Inoue, K., & Akimoto, K. (2013) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/1758-5996-5-81 · Cited by 16
“However, previous findings were inconsistent [6-10].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialYao, F., Liu, W., Zhao, R., Li, G., Huang, X., & Chen, Y. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-8428-z · Cited by 16
Haruyama, Y., Fukuda, H., Arai, T., & Muto, T. (2013) · Journal of Occupational Health · doi:10.1539/joh.12-0145-oa · Cited by 16
Mohan, V., Anjana, R. M., Ranjit Unnikrishnan, I., Venkatesan, U., Sankari, G. U., Rahulashankiruthiyayan, T., Samhita, S. K., & Rani, C. S. S. (2020) · Journal of Diabetes and its Complications · doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2020.107652 · Cited by 15
Franceschini, N., Almasy, L. A., MacCluer, J. W., Göring, H. H. H., Cole, S. A., Diego, V. P., Laston, S., Howard, B. V., Lee, E. T., Best, L. G., et al. (2008) · BMC Medical Genetics · doi:10.1186/1471-2350-9-90 · Cited by 15
“Diabetes and obesity are associated with increased morbidity and mortality in the general population [6] and among American Indian subjects, and they account for increased incident hypertension [7], and fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular disease (CVD) events [8].”
BackgroundSelf-citationKim, S. H., & Lee, J. S. (2018) · Clinical and Experimental Hypertension · doi:10.1080/10641963.2018.1489548 · Cited by 15
Hypertension in patients with chronic kidney disease
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“Its prevalence increases with age, duration of hyper tension, and the presence of diabetes [ 4 ].”
BackgroundCao, X., Xie, X., Zhou, J., Yuan, H., & Chen, Z. (2014) · International Urology and Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s11255-014-0805-z · Cited by 14
Perdomo, S. J., Balzer, J. R., Jakicic, J. M., Kline, C. E., & Gibbs, B. B. (2019) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-019-00566-w · Cited by 14
“Hypertension is a significant predictor of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease [3, 4], thus blood pressure (BP) reduction is important.”
BackgroundSi, Y., Wang, A., Yang, Y.-S., Liu, H., Gu, S., Mu, Y., & Lyu, Z. (2021) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-021-01019-9 · Cited by 14
“Nevertheless, some studies have shown conflicting results [21, 22].”
ResultAlcohol Consumption and Prehypertension: An Investigation of University Youth
Jorgensen, R. S., & Maisto, S. A. (2008) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.3200/bmed.34.1.21-28 · Cited by 14
Ebinger, J. E., Blyler, C. A., Brettler, J. W., & Rader, F. (2020) · Current Cardiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11886-020-01319-9 · Cited by 14
Hegner, P., Lebek, S., Maier, L. S., Arzt, M. E., & Wagner, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.741896 · Cited by 17
“Hypertension is a well-established independent risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease (Howard et al., 1999; Vasan et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBarr, E., Cunningham, J., Tatipata, S., Dunbar, T., Kangaharan, N., Guthridge, S. L., Li, S. Q., Condon, J. R., Shaw, J. E., O’Dea, K., et al. (2017) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.13360 · Cited by 13
Osuala, E., Oluwatosin, O., & Kadiri, S. (2014) · Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology · doi:10.5897/jphe2013.0596 · Cited by 13
“Identified risk factors were in line with Wang et al. (2006) and Omorogiwa et al. (2009) in their studies.”
ResultThe well-being valuation model: a method for monetizing the nonmarket good of individual well-being
Sidney, J. A., Jones, A., Coberley, C. R., Pope, J. E., & Wells, A. R. (2016) · Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology · doi:10.1007/s10742-016-0161-9 · Cited by 13
“…on evidence that a direct relationship exists between the composition and number of well-being risks, or more generally, wellbeing risk profile, and the probability of developing disease, and further, having disease increases the likelihood of developing co-occurring disease ( Wang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundWang, S., Zhou, Z., Fan, F., Qi, L., Jia, J., Sun, P., Jiang, Y., Kou, M., Chen, D., Zhang, Y., et al. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21023-7 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, W., Lee, E. T., Fabsitz, R. R., Devereux, R., Best, L., Welty, T. K., & Howard, B. V.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Venue
- Hypertension
- Published
- 2006-03
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-409
- ISSN
- 0194-911X (ISSN-L)
- 1524-4563
- OpenAlex
- W2057641540
- Cited by
- 228
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 7.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Hypertension (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (U01HL041652, U01HL041654, U01 HL-41642, U01HL 41652, UL01HL41654, U01HL041642)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Blood Pressure and Hypertension Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Sodium Intake and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Keywords
- cardiovascular disease, hypertension risk factors, Native Americans, Strong Heart Study, prehypertension, albuminuria, microalbuminuria, diabetes mellitus, obesity, alcohol consumption, smoking, systolic blood pressure, antihypertensive drugs, hypertension incidence
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aging, Albuminuria, Alcohol Drinking, Cardiovascular Diseases, Female, Humans, Hypertension, Indians, North American, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Obesity, Risk Factors, Smoking, Cohort Studies, Diabetes Complications, Overweight
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