Seeding of Supercooled Low Stratus Clouds with a UAV to Study Microphysical Ice Processes: An Introduction to the CLOUDLAB Project
Open accessAbstract
Ice formation and growth processes play a crucial role in the evolution of cloud systems and the formation of precipitation. However, the initial formation and growth of ice crystals are challenging to study in the real atmosphere resulting in uncertainties in weather forecasts and climate projections. The CLOUDLAB project tackles this problem by using supercooled stratus clouds as a natural laboratory for targeted glaciogenic cloud seeding to advance the understanding of ice processes: Ice nucleating particles are injected from an uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) into supercooled stratus clouds to induce ice crystal formation and subsequent growth processes. Microphysical changes induced by seeding are measured 3–15 min downstream of the seeding location using in situ and ground-based remote sensing instrumentation. The novel application of seeding with a multirotor UAV combined with the persistent nature of stratus clouds enables repeated seeding experiments under similar and well-constrained initial conditions. This article describes the scientific goals, experimental design, and first results of CLOUDLAB. First, the seeding plume is characterized by using measurements of a UAV equipped with an optical particle counter. Second, the seeding-induced microphysical changes observed by cloud radars and a tethered balloon system are presented. The seeding signatures were detected by regions of increased radar reflectivity (>−20 dB Z ), which were 10–20 dB Z higher than the natural background. Simultaneously, high concentrations of seeding particles and ice crystals (up to 2,000 L −1 ) were observed. A cloud seeding case was simulated with the numerical weather model ICON to contextualize the findings. Significance Statement: A novel experimental approach to conduct laboratory-type experiments in natural clouds is introduced within the CLOUDLAB project: a unique combination of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) and state-of-the-art instrumentation is used to perform targeted cloud seeding experiments in persistent supercooled stratus clouds. The results will enhance the process understanding of mixed-phase clouds and improve the ice-phase parameterizations in weather and climate models, ultimately leading to more reliable precipitation forecasts and climate projections. In addition, the gained knowledge will be important to quantify the consequences of artificial weather modification and climate interventions.
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CLOUDLAB investigates ice microphysical processes in supercooled low-stratus clouds over the Swiss Plateau through controlled glaciogenic seeding using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) during three winter campaigns.
“It investigates ice microphysical processes in supercooled low-stratus clouds over the Swiss Plateau through controlled glaciogenic seeding using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) during three winter campaigns (Henneberger et al., 2023; Miller et al., 2024)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The CLOUDLAB project and Experimental design sections support the description of controlled UAV seeding to study ice microphysical processes in supercooled stratus clouds over the Swiss Plateau. The CLOUDLAB project section says that two winter field campaigns had been conducted as of 2023, with additional campaigns planned; it does not establish a total of three winter campaigns. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe CLOUDLAB project has performed the only field experiments to date explicitly designed to resolve uncertainties in ice crystal growth dynamics and validate glaciogenic seeding efficacy in low-level mixed-phase clouds.
“The CLOUDLAB project has performed the only field experiments to date explicitly designed to resolve uncertainties in ice crystal growth dynamics and validate glaciogenic seeding efficacy in low-level mixed-phase clouds (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The CLOUDLAB project section (page unavailable) says the project was designed to study ice-crystal formation and growth under well-constrained conditions, and the Summary and outlook reports field experiments with detectable seeding signals. The paper does not establish that these were the only such field experiments; its Characterization of the seeding plume section places investigation of seeding efficiency under different conditions in upcoming publications, rather than reporting that efficacy was validated. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCLOUDLAB examined the role of the WBF process in modulating cloud glaciation, precipitation formation, and mixed-phase cloud lifetimes.
“Additionally, CLOUDLAB examined the role of the WBF process in modulating cloud glaciation, precipitation formation, and mixed-phase cloud lifetimes (Henneberger et al., 2023; Ramelli et al., 2024)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The introduction (section “M”; page unavailable) says the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process can lead to cloud glaciation and precipitation. “The CLOUDLAB project” describes experiments designed to study ice-crystal formation and growth, but our copy does not say that CLOUDLAB examined the process’s effect on mixed-phase cloud lifetimes. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCLOUDLAB's focus on MCT rather than CCT limits the extent to which its findings can be extrapolated to broader CCT applications.
“While CLOUDLAB provided empirical validation of ice nucleation and vapor competition effects under high INP concentrations, its focus on MCT rather than CCT limits the extent to which its findings can be extrapolated to broader CCT applications (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023).”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The CLOUDLAB project section describes experiments in supercooled low stratus clouds, and the introduction notes that generalizing field observations requires many cloud cases. Those passages support caution about extrapolation, but the paper does not identify its work as MCT, compare it with CCT, or assess its applicability to CCT. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCLOUDLAB provided empirical validation of ice nucleation and vapor competition effects under high INP concentrations.
“While CLOUDLAB provided empirical validation of ice nucleation and vapor competition effects under high INP concentrations, its focus on MCT rather than CCT limits the extent to which its findings can be extrapolated to broader CCT applications (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023).”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Cloud seeding experiments and Summary and outlook sections report high ice-crystal concentrations after CLOUDLAB seeding, supporting an observed ice-production effect. But the paper does not report empirical validation of vapor competition under measured high INP concentrations: its introduction describes vapor-driven growth as background physics, and Characterization of the seeding plume says the dominant ice-nucleation mechanism remains unclear. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
By inducing controlled ice nucleation, the CLOUDLAB project investigated microphysical processes such as the WBF mechanism and assessed how environmental variables (e.g., temperature, wind speed) influence AgI's efficacy as INP.
“By inducing controlled ice nucleation, the project investigated microphysical processes such as the WBF mechanism and assessed how environmental variables (e.g., temperature, wind speed) influence AgI's efficacy as INP (Henneberger et al., 2023; Miller et al., 2024)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design and Cloud seeding experiments sections describe CLOUDLAB inducing ice formation with seeding particles and studying the resulting microphysics; the paper also explains the WBF mechanism. The Cloud seeding experiments section links warmer modeled temperatures to lower activation of seeding particles, but treats wind speed as affecting transport and ice-crystal growth, not AgI’s efficacy as an ice-nucleating particle. The Characterization of the seeding plume section says investigation of seeding efficiency under different environmental conditions is planned for future publications. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe CLOUDLAB experiments provided observational data to validate numerical weather models (e.g., ICON) under high ICNC (>100 L^-1) conditions, where vapor competition suppresses ice crystal growth.
“The experiments provided observational data to validate numerical weather models (e.g., ICON; Omanovic et al., 2024) under high ICNC ( > 100 L -1 ) conditions, where vapor competition suppresses ice crystal growth (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Cloud seeding experiments and Summary and outlook sections (pages unavailable) report CLOUDLAB observations of ice crystal concentrations up to 2,000 L⁻¹ and compare them with an ICON simulation. The paper describes using the observations to constrain and validate simulations as future work; it does not establish vapor competition as suppressing ice crystal growth under high-ICNC conditions. It instead attributes the simulation’s lower ice concentration to warmer modeled temperatures and reduced activation of seeding particles. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTwo specialized UAVs, capable of functioning in below-zero temperatures, were deployed: one dedicated to producing INPs and another, equipped with a Portable Optical Particle Spectrometer (POPS), profiled aerosol and cloud properties.
“Two specialized UAVs, capable of functioning in below-zero temperatures, were deployed: one dedicated to producing INPs and another, equipped with a Portable Optical Particle Spectrometer (POPS), profiled aerosol and cloud properties (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section says both UAVs had propeller heating for supercooled conditions, the seeding UAV carried flares, and the measurement UAV carried a POPS for aerosol-size measurements. The Characterization of the seeding plume section describes POPS measurements of plume particles, not cloud properties; the paper assigns cloud-microphysics measurements to other instruments. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe HOLIMO imager on the TBS resolved ice crystal habits (pristine vs. rimed) and quantified concentrations up to 2,000 L^-1.
“The HOLIMO imager on the TBS resolved ice crystal habits (pristine vs. rimed) and quantified concentrations up to 2,000 L -1 (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023; Ramelli et al., 2024)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section says HOLIMO on the tethered balloon measures ice-crystal shapes and size distributions. The Cloud seeding experiments section identifies HOLIMO as the instrument measuring ice-crystal concentrations, and Summary and outlook reports concentrations up to 2,000 L⁻¹. Our copy does not say it distinguished pristine from rimed crystals. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSynchronized GPS timestamps from coordinated UAVs flights and HOLIMO enabled precise Lagrangian plume tracking of ice crystal residence times.
“Synchronized GPS timestamps from coordinated UAVs flights and HOLIMO enabled precise Lagrangian plume tracking of ice crystal residence times (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section (page unavailable) describes a measurement UAV sampling the seeding plume and HOLIMO measuring ice crystals on a tethered balloon. The Cloud seeding experiments section reports a 4–6-minute ice-crystal life span. Neither passage says that synchronized GPS timestamps enabled precise Lagrangian tracking of crystal residence times. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe transient nature (timescales of minutes) of ice nucleation ensured the reversibility of CLOUDLAB as seeded ice crystals rapidly sedimented out of the cloud layer, allowing background microphysics to return to liquid-dominated conditions.
“The transient nature (timescales of minutes) of ice nucleation ensured the reversibility as seeded ice crystals rapidly sedimented out of the cloud layer, allowing background microphysics to return to liquid-dominated conditions (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWind profilers and hourly radiosondes provided updates on wind speed and direction, triggering mission adjustments if deviations exceed ± 10% of the expected advection velocity.
“Wind profilers and hourly radiosondes provided updates on wind speed and direction, triggering mission adjustments if deviations exceed ± 10% of the expected advection velocity (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023).”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section (page not available) lists radiosondes measuring wind speed and direction and a radar wind profiler measuring horizontal wind. It does not say radiosondes were launched hourly or that missions were adjusted when advection velocity deviated by ±10%. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSeeding plumes were released 1-3 km upwind of the measurement site within a restricted airspace (4 km radius, 2.2 km height), limiting the plume dispersion to a controlled corridor.
“Seeding plumes were released 1-3 km upwind of the measurement site within a restricted airspace (4 km radius, 2.2 km height), limiting the plume dispersion to a controlled corridor (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section says seeding material was released 1–4 km upwind and gives the restricted airspace dimensions as a 4 km radius and an altitude up to 2.2 km MSL; the reported missions in Table 2 were 2–3 km upwind. It says the airspace limited the seeding location, not plume dispersion to a controlled corridor. The Characterization of the seeding plume section says turbulence would disperse the plume further. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe ice-nucleating efficiency of AgI particles, while validated at temperatures below -5°C, remains sensitive to localized supersaturation conditions not fully resolved in situ.
“The ice-nucleating efficiency of AgI particles, while validated at temperatures below -5 ◦ C (J. Chen et al., 2024; Fuchs et al., 2025), remains sensitive to localized supersaturation conditions not fully resolved in situ (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
In “Characterization of the seeding plume” (page unavailable), the paper says seeding particles are expected to activate as cloud condensation nuclei under supersaturated conditions and that their ice-nucleation mechanism and efficiency under different environmental conditions remain to be investigated. It does not say that localized supersaturation was inadequately resolved in situ or establish its specific effect on AgI ice-nucleating efficiency. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe design of the CLOUDLAB experiment intentionally mimicked natural ice formation, with no long-term alterations to cloud dynamics, as evidenced by microphysical restoration within minutes of plume passage.
“The design of the experiment intentionally mimicked natural ice formation, with no long-term alterations to cloud dynamics, as evidenced by microphysical restoration within minutes of plume passage (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The introduction and Cloud seeding experiments section describe adding ice-nucleating particles to initiate ice formation through processes also found in natural clouds. But the experiments report a strong seeding signal lasting through the five-minute flare burn, not microphysical restoration within minutes of plume passage. The paper does not establish that cloud dynamics underwent no long-term alteration (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredContingency planning integrated real-time meteorological monitoring and predefined operational thresholds to ensure safety and data integrity.
“Contingency planning integrated real-time meteorological monitoring and predefined operational thresholds to ensure safety and data integrity.”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The Experimental design section (page unavailable) says seeding locations were chosen before each experiment using wind measurements from regularly launched radiosondes, UAV profiles, and wind profilers, subject to airspace and flight-time limits. That supports meteorological monitoring and operational constraints, but the paper does not describe contingency planning with predefined safety thresholds or say these measures ensured data integrity. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCLOUDLAB findings offer valuable insights relevant to CCT/MCT research.
“Its findings offer valuable insights relevant to CCT/ MCT research”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
These particles initiate cloud phase transitions in supercooled low clouds, leading to ice crystal formation and modulating precipitation potential.
“These particles initiate cloud phase transitions in supercooled low clouds, leading to ice crystal formation and modulating precipitation potential (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
One CLOUDLAB UAV released AgI flares produced ~20 g of INPs active below -5°C and generated detectable plumes for 5-6 min.
“One UAV released AgI flares produced ∼ 20 g of INPs active below -5 ◦ C (Y. Chen et al., 2024; Fuchs et al., 2025) and generated detectable plumes for 5-6 min (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The radars further validated seeding signals, distinguishing seeded plumes from natural variability.
“The radars further validated seeding signals, distinguishing seeded plumes from natural variability (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The persistence of wintertime stratus clouds over the Swiss Plateau provided quasi-steady conditions, enabling repeatable and controlled experiments critical for isolating microphysical processes.
“The persistence of wintertime stratus clouds over the Swiss Plateau provided quasi-steady conditions, enabling repeatable and controlled experiments critical for isolating microphysical processes (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
The first CLOUDLAB campaign (2022) validated the feasibility of UAV-based glaciogenic seeding in supercooled low stratus clouds, confirming that AgI flares nucleated ice crystals at temperatures below -5°C and that seeding plumes were detectable via ground-based radars.
“The first campaign (2022) validated the feasibility of UAV-based glaciogenic seeding in supercooled low stratus clouds, confirming that Agl flares nucleated ice crystals at temperatures below -5 ◦ C and that seeding plumes were detectable via ground-based radars (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
Ground-based cloud and vertical-pointing radars detected seeded regions through reflectivity increases, with detection thresholds to distinguish seeded ice.
“Ground-based cloud and vertical-pointing radars detected seeded regions through reflectivity increases, with detection thresholds to distinguish seeded ice (Fuchs et al., 2025; Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
Ground-based instrumentation, including cloud radars and a tethered balloon system (TBS) with holographic imagers (HOLIMO), tracked seeding plumes and captured in situ microphysical data such as ice crystal size, habit, and concentrations.
“Ground-based instrumentation, including cloud radars and a tethered balloon system (TBS) with holographic imagers (HOLIMO), tracked seeding plumes and captured in situ microphysical data such as ice crystal size, habit, and concentrations (Henneberger et al., 2023)”
From Past Field Experiments of Solar Radiation Modification: A Review of the Scientific and Technical Aspects for Governance (2026) · cites this paper as Henneberger et al., 2023
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Miller, A. J., Ramelli, F., Fuchs, C., Omanovic, N., Spirig, R., Zhang, H., Lohmann, U., Kanji, Z. A., & Henneberger, J. (2024) · Atmospheric Measurement Techniques · doi:10.5194/amt-17-601-2024 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Miller, A. J., Ramelli, F., Fuchs, C., Omanovic, N., Spirig, R., Zhang, H., Lohmann, U., Kanji, Z. A., & Henneberger, J. (2024) · Atmospheric Measurement Techniques · doi:10.5194/amt-17-601-2024 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationQuantifying ice crystal growth rates in natural clouds from glaciogenic cloud seeding experiments
Fuchs, C., Ramelli, F., Miller, A. J., Omanovic, N., Spirig, R., Zhang, H., Seifert, P., Ohneiser, K., Lohmann, U., & Henneberger, J. (2025) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-25-12177-2025 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationHernandez‐Galindo, I., Määttänen, A., Redmond Roche, B. H., Boucher, O., Irvine, P. J., & Moore, J. C. (2026) · Earth's Future · doi:10.1029/2025ef007254 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Henneberger, J., Ramelli, F., Spirig, R., Omanovic, N., Miller, A. J., Fuchs, C., Zhang, H., Bühl, J., Hervo, M., Kanji, Z. A., Ohneiser, K., Radenz, M., Rösch, M., Seifert, P., & Lohmann, U.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (DE)
- Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss (CH)
- Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland;
- ORCID
- Venue
- Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
- Publisher
- American Meteorological Society
- Published
- 2023-11
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- E1962-E1979
- ISSN
- 0003-0007 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-0477
- OpenAlex
- W4387018249
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 6
- FWCI
- 5.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission (101008004, H2020-INFRAIA-2020-1, HORIZON2020, H2020, 654109, 101021272)
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (408027490)
- Centro Svizzero di Calcolo Scientifico (s1144)
- National Supercomputing Centre Singapore
- Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (101008004, H2020-INFRAIA-2020-1, 654109)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Meteorological Phenomena and Simulations
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Icing and De-icing Technologies
- Keywords
- cloud seeding, ice nucleating particles, ice crystal formation, ice crystal growth, glaciogenic seeding, unmanned aerial vehicles, multirotor drones, cloud microphysics, mixed-phase clouds, CLOUDLAB, radar reflectivity
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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