Cited by 1,485Mental Health Treatment and AccessTreatment of Major DepressionChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey

Dan German Blazer, Ronald C. Kessler, Katherine A. McGonagle, Marvin S. Swartz·1994·American Journal of Psychiatry

DOI 10.1176/ajp.151.7.979

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: Major depression is a frequent and disabling psychiatric disorder in the United States. This report examines the prevalence and risk factor profile of both pure and comorbid major depression according to data from the National Comorbidity Survey. METHOD: To estimate the prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity in the United States, a national sample of 8,098 persons 15-54 years of age from the 48 conterminous states was surveyed with a modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. RESULTS: From the survey data the prevalence of current (30-day) major depression was estimated to be 4.9%, with a relatively higher prevalence in females, young adults, and persons with less than a college education. The prevalence estimate for lifetime major depression was 17.1%, with a similar demographic distribution. Both 30-day and lifetime prevalence estimates were higher than estimates from the earlier Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. When pure major depression was compared with major depression co-occurring with other psychiatric disorders, the risk factor profiles exhibited clear differences. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a greater burden of major depression in community-dwelling persons than has been estimated from previous community samples. The risk factor profile showed significant differences between persons with pure and combined major depression.

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Shi, J., Zhang, Y., Liu, F., Li, Y., Wang, J., Jonathan Flint, C., Gao, J., Li, Y., Tao, M., Zhang, K., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0086674 · Cited by 42
Predictors of Depressive Symptoms in Older Rural Couples: The Impact of Work, Stress and Health
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Increasing the validity of experimental models for depression
Dzirasa, K., & Covington, H. E. (2012) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06669.x · Cited by 43
Depression and bone mass
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The reduction of adult neurogenesis in depression impairs the retrieval of new as well as remote episodic memory
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Chronic Pain and Psychiatric Morbidity: A Comparison between Patients Attending Specialist Orthopedics Clinic and Multidisciplinary Pain Clinic
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Unique and Related Predictors of Major Depressive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Their Comorbidity After Hurricane Katrina
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“9% experiencing current (past-month) MDD (Blazer et al., 1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effectiveness of screening and treatment for depression in ambulatory indigent patients
Jarjoura, D. G., Polen, A., Baum, E. E., Kropp, D., Hetrick, S., & Rutecki, G. W. (2004) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.21249.x · Cited by 42
“8 range 28 to 67 24 to 63 Gender, % female 61 (9) 76 (8) −39 to 9 Heart disease, % 22 (8) 13 (6) −11 to 29 Diabetes, % 22 (8) 25 (7) −25 to 19 Medicaid, % 36 (9) 58 (9) −47 to 3 Baseline BDI-II 23 (2) 28 (2) −11 to 1”
Comorbidity, Smoking Behavior and Treatment Outcome
Keuthen, N. J., NIAURA, R. S., Borrelli, B., Goldstein, M. G., DePue, J. D., Murphy, C., Gastfriend, D. R., Reiter, S. R., & Abrams, D. B. (2000) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000012403 · Cited by 42
The Evaluation of Depression in Inpatients with HIV Disease
Cockram, A. M., Judd, F. K., Mijch, A. M., & Norman, T. R. (1999) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.1999.00579.x · Cited by 42
Quality of Life in Patients with Lower Limb Amputation: Does It Affect Post-amputation Pain, Functional Status, Emotional Status and Perception of Body Image?
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The International College of Neuropsychopharmacology (CINP) Treatment Guidelines for Bipolar Disorder in Adults (CINP-BD-2017), Part 1: Background and Methods of the Development of Guidelines
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“The National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) (Kessler et al., 1993, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 1997b; Blazer et al., 1994; Wittchen et al., 1994; Warner et al., 1995; Kendler et al., 1996; Magee et al., 1996) reported a lifetime prevalence of 1.7% for BD-I and an annual prevalence of 1.3% with similar…”
ResultInfluential
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Schreiber, D. R., & Dautovich, N. D. (2017) · Menopause The Journal of The North American Menopause Society · doi:10.1097/gme.0000000000000897 · Cited by 41
Cortical–Amygdalar Circuit Dysfunction in a Genetic Mouse Model of Serotonin Deficiency
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“population is affected by an MDD each year, and 17% of the population is expected to experience symptoms of an MDD in their lifetime (Blazer et al., 1994; Kessler et al., 1994).”
Background
Correlates of Depressive and Anxiety Disorders among Young Canadians
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The Economics of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors In Depression
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Women's increased vulnerability to mood disorders: Integrating psychobiology and epidemiology
Blehar, M. C., & Oren, D. A. (1995) · Depression · doi:10.1002/depr.3050030103 · Cited by 41
Socioeconomic status and psychiatric disorders
Dohrenwend, B. P., & Schwartz, S. (1995) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00001504-199503000-00017 · Cited by 41
Th17 cells sense microbiome to promote depressive-like behaviors
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“Depression is one of the most prevalent diseases, with a staggering lifetime prevalence of nearly 20% in the USA [1-3].”
BackgroundInfluential
The Protective Effects of Sense of Community, Multigroup Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem Against Internalizing Problems Among Dominican Youth: Implications for Social Workers
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Clinical neuroprediction: Amygdala reactivity predicts depressive symptoms 2 years later
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The Impact of Migraine on Patients With Major Depressive Disorder
Hung, C., Liu, C., Juang, Y., & Wang, S. (2006) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00378.x · Cited by 40
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Fujiwara, T. (2007) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.11.024 · Cited by 44
“The test–retest reliability and clinical validity of CIDI diagnoses have previously been examined (Blazer et al., 1994).”
Method
Depression in the elderly: new concepts and therapeutic approaches
Mecocci, P., Cherubini, A., Mariani, E., Ruggiero, C., & Senin, U. (2004) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/bf03327382 · Cited by 41
Depression Among College Students: Trends In Prevalence And Treatment Seeking
Michael, K. D., Hueisman, T. J., Gerard, C., Coles, T., & Gustafson, M. R. (2006) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) · doi:10.71889/5fylantbak.30804509 · Cited by 40
DEPRESSION IN ORTHOPAEDIC TRAUMA PATIENTS
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Encouraging young men's participation in mental health research and treatment: perspectives in our technological age
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LaMotte, M. E., Elliott, M., & Mouzon, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01457-6 · Cited by 49
“…and anxiety that requires access to health care to have received a diagnosis, our findings are consistent with psychiatric epidemiological studies of nationally representative samples [1, 2, 9–11] that use algorithms to diagnose survey respondents, regardless of whether they have sought treatment.”
BackgroundMethodResult
Prevalence of mental health problems in people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Hu, F., Liu, P., Jia, Y., Ge, M., Shen, L.-T., Xia, X., & Chen, H. (2024) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2024.2424998 · Cited by 46
“…living with HIV, and females exhibited higher prevalence of depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, and PTSD compared to males, consistent with findings from previous studies (Blazer et al., 1994; Hu et al., 2023; Jones, 2013; Merikangas et al., 2010; Racine et al., 2021; Solmi et al., 2022).”
Relationship Characteristics and Depression among Fathers with Newborns
Huang, C., & Warner, L. A. (2005) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/426719 · Cited by 39
“higher for women than men (Weissman et al. 1991, 1993; Blazer et al. 1994).”
Background
Migraine, Major Depression, Panic Disorder, and Personality Traits in Women Aged 40-74 Years: A Population-Based Study
Mattsson, P., & Ekselius, L. (2002) · Cephalalgia · doi:10.1046/j.1468-2982.2002.00407.x · Cited by 38
Factors Related to Depressive Symptoms Among Long-Term Survivors of Cervical Cancer
McCorkle, R. C., Tang, S. T., Greenwald, H. P., Holcombe, G., & Lavery, M. (2005) · Health Care For Women International · doi:10.1080/07399330500377507 · Cited by 39
Development and Depression
Garber, J. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4163-9_25 · Cited by 39

Authors: Blazer, D. G., Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., & Swartz, M. S.
Affiliations: Duke Medical Center (US)
ORCID: Dan German Blazer
Ronald C. Kessler
Marvin S. Swartz
Venue: American Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher: American Psychiatric Association Publishing
Published: 1994-07-01
Volume: 151
Issue: 7
Pages: 979-986
ISSN: 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
1535-7228
DOI: 10.1176/ajp.151.7.979
OpenAlex: W2181560023
Cited by: 1,485
References: 24
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 57
FWCI: 39.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH046376, NIMH MH-00507, MH 46376)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: major depressive disorder, prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, risk factors, lifetime prevalence, community-dwelling adults, sex differences, young adults, educational attainment, National Comorbidity Survey
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Mental Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Educational Status, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, United States, Comorbidity, Prevalence

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The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey

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