Brain imaging of the cortex in ADHD: a coordinated analysis of large-scale clinical and population-based samples
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: Neuroimaging studies show structural alterations of various brain regions in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), although nonreplications are frequent. The authors sought to identify cortical characteristics related to ADHD using large-scale studies. METHODS: Cortical thickness and surface area (based on the Desikan-Killiany atlas) were compared between case subjects with ADHD (N=2,246) and control subjects (N=1,934) for children, adolescents, and adults separately in ENIGMA-ADHD, a consortium of 36 centers. To assess familial effects on cortical measures, case subjects, unaffected siblings, and control subjects in the NeuroIMAGE study (N=506) were compared. Associations of the attention scale from the Child Behavior Checklist with cortical measures were determined in a pediatric population sample (Generation-R, N=2,707). RESULTS: In the ENIGMA-ADHD sample, lower surface area values were found in children with ADHD, mainly in frontal, cingulate, and temporal regions; the largest significant effect was for total surface area (Cohen's d=-0.21). Fusiform gyrus and temporal pole cortical thickness was also lower in children with ADHD. Neither surface area nor thickness differences were found in the adolescent or adult groups. Familial effects were seen for surface area in several regions. In an overlapping set of regions, surface area, but not thickness, was associated with attention problems in the Generation-R sample. CONCLUSIONS: Subtle differences in cortical surface area are widespread in children but not adolescents and adults with ADHD, confirming involvement of the frontal cortex and highlighting regions deserving further attention. Notably, the alterations behave like endophenotypes in families and are linked to ADHD symptoms in the population, extending evidence that ADHD behaves as a continuous trait in the population. Future longitudinal studies should clarify individual lifespan trajectories that lead to nonsignificant findings in adolescent and adult groups despite the presence of an ADHD diagnosis.
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Children with ADHD have slightly reduced total cortical surface area and smaller subcortical regions, with differences not seen in adolescents or adults and all differences small to very small.
“An analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 36 cohorts with a total of over 4,100 participants found slightly reduced total cortical surface area in children with ADHD. The same team found some subcortical regions of the brain were smaller in children with ADHD, mainly in frontal, cingulate and temporal regions with some reductions in cortical thickness in temporal regions”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2019
The Results report slightly smaller total cortical surface area in children with ADHD, especially in frontal, cingulate, and temporal regions, and no significant cortical differences in adolescents or adults. The Discussion describes the effects as small. But the cited paper identifies those regions as cortical, not subcortical; its Introduction only refers to an earlier study of subcortical volumes whose differences were largely restricted to childhood. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredADHD medications are not associated with brain structure deficits but with improved brain function in inferior frontal and striatal regions.
“Meta-analyses and systematic reviews showed that the medications used to treat ADHD are not associated with observed deficits in brain structure (Hoogman et al., 2017; Hoogman et al., 2019; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2013), but with improved brain function, most prominently in inferior frontal and striatal regions (Hart et al., 2013; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2019
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports no significant association between psychostimulant medication and cortical dimensions, supporting the structural part of the citation. It cautions against firm conclusions because the study was observational, and the Results note nominally lower frontal surface area among current stimulant users. This source therefore does not establish the broader claim that ADHD medications are not associated with brain-structure deficits; the brain-function clause is attributed to other citations. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredADHD medication treatment had no effect on brain structure in ENIGMA-ADHD studies of 4,180 patients across 36 cohorts.
“Medication treatment for ADHD had no effect on brain structure in studies of 4,180 ADHD patients in the ENIGMA-ADHD Working Group set of 36 cohorts from around the world (Hoogman et al., 2017; Hoogman et al., 2019).”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2019
The Discussion reports no significant association between psychostimulant medication and cortical dimensions, but cautions that the observational design does not justify a firm conclusion that medication had no effect. Materials and Methods says the 36-cohort cortical analysis included 4,180 individuals, of whom 2,246 had ADHD and 1,934 were healthy controls—not 4,180 ADHD patients. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredVariability in adult structural findings likely reflects age-related neurodevelopmental trajectories, medication exposure, and the heterogeneity of ADHD across the lifespan.
“Such variability likely reflects the influence of age-related neurodevelopmental trajectories, medication exposure, and the heterogeneity of ADHD across the lifespan [72].”
From ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives (2025) · cites this paper as [72]
The Discussion reports that case-control differences attenuated with age and considers different trajectories for people whose ADHD persists or remits, supporting the age-related and heterogeneity components as possible explanations. It reports no significant association between psychostimulant medication and cortical dimensions, however, and cautions against firm conclusions; medication exposure is not established as an explanation for the variability. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn adults with ADHD, structural findings have been more inconsistent, with some studies showing similar reductions and others reporting no significant group differences.
“whereas findings in adults have been more inconsistent, with some studies showing similar reductions and others reporting no significant group differences”
From ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives (2025) · cites this paper as [72]
The Results (page not provided) report no case-control differences in the adult group, supporting the claim that some studies found no significant differences. The Discussion says effects were most pronounced in children and non-significant in adults, but the passages do not identify adult studies showing similar reductions or establish that adult findings were inconsistent. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Individuals with ADHD (both children and adults) show significantly smaller volumes in key subcortical regions: basal ganglia (caudate, putamen), nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus.
“individuals with ADHD (both children and adults) showed significantly smaller volumes in key subcortical regions: the basal ganglia (caudate, putamen), nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus”
From ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives (2025) · cites this paper as [72]
The Introduction reports earlier findings of subcortical volume differences in ADHD, but says they were largely restricted to childhood. The Discussion likewise describes the subcortical findings as most pronounced in children and non-significant in adults. This paper does not establish significant volume reductions in adults or specify significant reductions in every region listed. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChildren with ADHD have decreased cortical areas of the frontal, temporal, and cingulate regions.
“children with ADHD have decreased cortical areas of the frontal, temporal, and cingulate regions (Hoogman et al., 2019)”
From Early-Initiated Childhood Reading for Pleasure: Associations with Better Cognitive Performance, Mental Well-being and Brain Structure in Young Adolescence (2024) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2019
A follow-up ENIGMA study found that group differences in cortical metrics were less pronounced in adults than in children with ADHD.
“A follow-up ENIGMA study focusing on cortical metrics found that group differences were less pronounced in adults than in children”
From ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives (2025) · cites this paper as [72]
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- [18]Grasby KL, Jahanshad N, Painter JN, Colodro-Conde L, Bralten J, Hibar DP, Lind PA, Pizzagalli F, Ching CR, McMahon MA, Shatokhina N, Zsembik LCP, Agartz I, Alhusaini S, Almeida MA, Alnas D, Amlien IK, Andersson M, Ard T, Armstrong NJ, Ashley-Koch A, Bernard M, Brouwer RM, Buimer EE, Bülow R, Bürger C, Cannon DM, Chakravarty M, Chen Q, Cheung JW, Couvy-Duchesne B, Dale AM, Dalvie S, de Araujo TK, de Zubicaray GI, de Zwarte SM, den Braber A, Doan NT, Dohm K, Ehrlich S, Engelbrecht H-R, Erk S, Fan CC, Fedko IO, Foley SF, Ford JM, Fukunaga M, Garrett ME, Ge T, Giddaluru S, Goldman AL, Groenewold NA, Grotegerd D, Gurholt TP, Gutman BA, Hansell NK, Harris MA, Harrison MB, Haswell CC, Hauser M, Heslenfeld DJ, Hoehn D, Holleran L, Hoogman M, Hottenga J-J, Ikeda M, Janowitz D, Jansen IE, Jia T, Jockwitz C, Kanai R, Karama S, Kasperaviciute D, Kaufmann T, Kelly S, Kikuchi M, Klein M, Knapp M, Knodt AR, Krämer B, Lancaster TM, Lee PH, Lett TA, Lewis LB, Lopes-Cendes I, Luciano M, Macciardi F, Marquand AF, Mathias SR, Melzer TR, Milaneschi Y, Mirza-Schreiber N, Moreira JC, Mühleisen TW, Müller-Myhsok B, Najt P, Nakahara S, Nho K, Olde Loohuis LM, Papadopoulos Orfanos D, Pearson JF, Pitcher TL, Pütz B, Ragothaman A, Rashid FM, Redlich R, Reinbold CS, Repple J, Richard G, Riedel BC, Risacher SL, Rocha CS, Roth Mota N, Salminen L, Saremi A, Saykin AJ, Schlag F, Schmaal L, Schofield PR, Secolin R, Shapland CY, Shen L, Shin J, Shumskaya E, Sønderby IE, Sprooten E, Strike LT, Tansey KE, Teumer A, Thalamuthu A, Thomopoulos SI, Tordesillas-Gutiérrez D, Turner JA, Uhlmann A, Vallerga CL, van der Meer D, van Donkelaar MM, van Eijk L, van Erp TG, van Haren NE, Van Rooij D, van Tol M-J, Veldink JH, Verhoef E, Walton E, Wang Y, Wardlaw JM, Wen W, Westlye LT, Whelan CD, Witt SH, Wittfeld K, Wolf C, Wolfers T, Yasuda CL, Zaremba D, Zhang Z, Zhu AH, Zwiers MP, Artiges E, Assareh AA, Ayesa-Arriola R, Belger A, Brandt CL, Brown GG, Cichon S, Curran JE, Davies GE, Degenhardt F, Dietsche B, Djurovic S, Doherty CP, Espiritu R, Garijo D, Gil Y, Gowland PA, Green RC, Häusler AN, Heindel W, Ho B-C, Hoffmann WU, Holsboer F, Homuth G, Hosten N, Jack CR, Jang M, Jansen A, Kolskår K, Koops S, Krug A, Lim KO, Luykx JJ, Mathalon DH, Mather KA, Mattay VS, Matthews S, Mayoral Van Son J, McEwen SC, Melle I, Morris DW, Mueller BA, Nauck M, Nordvik JE, Nöthen MM, O'Leary DS, Opel N, Paillère Martinot M-L, Pike GB, Preda A, Quinlan EB, Ratnakar V, Reppermund S, Steen VM, Torres FR, Veltman DJ, Voyvodic JT, Whelan R, White T, Yamamori H, Adams HH, Bis JC, Debette S, Decarli C, Fornage M, Gudnason V, Hofer E, Ikram MA, Launer L, Longstreth WT, Lopez OL, Mazoyer B, Mosley TH, Roshchupkin GV, Satizabal CL, Schmidt R, Seshadri S, Yang Q, Alvim MK, Ames D, Anderson TJ, Andreassen OA, Arias-Vasquez A, Bastin ME, Baune BT, Blangero J, Boomsma DI, Brodaty H, Brunner HG, Buckner RL, Buitelaar JK, Bustillo JR, Cahn W, Calhoun V, Caseras X, Caspers S, Cavalleri GL, Cendes F, Corvin A, Crespo-Facorro B, Dalrymple-Alford JC, Dannlowski U, de Geus EJ, Deary IJ, Delanty N, Depondt C, Desrivières S, Donohoe G, Espeseth T, Fernández G, Fisher SE, Flor H, Forstner AJ, Francks C, Franke B, Glahn DC, Gollub RL, Grabe HJ, Gruber O, Håberg AK, Hariri AR, Hartman CA, Hashimoto R, Heinz A, Hillegers MH, Hoekstra PJ, Holmes AJ, Hong LE, Hopkins WD, Hulshoff Pol HE, Jernigan TL, Jönsson EG, Kahn RS, Kennedy MA, Kircher TT, Kochunov P, Kwok JB, Le Hellard S, Martin NG, Martinot J-L, McDonald C, McMahon KL, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Morey RA, Nyberg L, Oosterlaan J, Ophoff RA, Paus T, Pausova Z, Penninx BW, Polderman TJ, Posthuma D, Rietschel M, Roffman JL, Rowland LM, Sachdev PS, Sämann PG, Schumann G, Sim K, Sisodiya SM, Smoller JW, Sommer IE, St Pourcain B, Stein DJ, Toga AW, Trollor JN, Van der Wee NJ, van't Ent D, Völzke H, Walter H, Weber B, Weinberger DR, Wright MJ, Zhou J, Stein JL, Thompson PM, Medland SE. The genetic architecture of the human cerebral cortex. bioRxiv. 2018.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Faraone, S. V., Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., Zheng, Y., Biederman, J., Bellgrove, M. A., Newcorn, J. H., Gignac, M., Al Saud, N. M., Manor, I., et al. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.01.022 · Cited by 1,545 · see citing works
Self-citationHansen, J. Y., Shafiei, G., Markello, R. D., Smart, K., Cox, S. M. L., Nørgaard, M., Beliveau, V., Wu, Y., Gallezot, J.-D., Aumont, É., et al. (2022) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-022-01186-3 · Cited by 797 · see citing works
Pharmacologic Treatment of Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder
Cortese, S. (2020) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra1917069 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Lukito, S., Norman, L., Carlisi, C., Radua, J., Hart, H., Simonoff, E., & Rubia, K. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720000574 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Self-citationBoedhoe, P. S. W., van Rooij, D., Hoogman, M., Twisk, J. W. R., Schmaal, L., Abe, Y., Alonso, P., Ameis, S. H., Anikin, A., Anticevic, A., et al. (2020) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19030331 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Self-citationSonuga‐Barke, E. J. S., Becker, S. P., Bölte, S., Castellanos, F. X., Franke, B., Newcorn, J. H., Nigg, J. T., Rohde, L. A., & Simonoff, E. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13696 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationBernanke, J., Luna, A., Chang, L., Bruno, E., Dworkin, J., & Posner, J. (2022) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00505-8 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sun, Y.-J., Sahakian, B. J., Langley, C., Yang, A., Jiang, Y., Kang, J., Zhao, X., Li, C., Cheng, W., & Feng, J. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291723001381 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…(Lai et al., 2000), and aggression (van Heukelum et al., 2021), etc. Impairments in these regions are also closely related to attention disorder (Hoogman et al., 2019): a large cohort study has shown that children with ADHD have decreased cortical areas of the frontal, temporal, and cingulate…”
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Self-citationZhang, X., Luo, Q., Wang, S., Qiu, L., Pan, N., Kuang, W., Lui, S., Huang, X., Yang, X., Kemp, G. J., et al. (2020) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102910 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Structural Brain Changes and Associated Symptoms of ADHD Subtypes in Children.
Mu, S., Wu, H., Zhang, J., & Chang, C. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab276 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
From neurons to brain networks, pharmacodynamics of stimulant medication for ADHD
Parlatini, V., Bellato, A., Murphy, D., & Cortese, S. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105841 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Cross-Diagnosis Structural Correlates of Autistic-Like Social Communication Differences
Kushki, A., Cardy, R. E., Panahandeh, S., Malihi, M., Hammill, C., Brian, J., Iaboni, A., Taylor, M. J., Schachar, R., Crosbie, J., et al. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab142 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives
Bogdańska-Chomczyk, E., Majewski, M. K., & Kozłowska, A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms262211020 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“A follow-up ENIGMA study focusing on cortical metrics found that group differences were less pronounced in adults than in children [72].”
InfluentialJung, B., Ahn, K., Justice, C., Norman, L., Price, J., Sudre, G., & Shaw, P. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01906-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Hoogman, M., Muetzel, R., Guimaraes, J. P., Shumskaya, E., Mennes, M., Zwiers, M. P., Jahanshad, N., Sudre, G., Wolfers, T., Earl, E. A., Soliva Vila, J. C., Vives-Gilabert, Y., Khadka, S., Novotny, S. E., Hartman, C. A., Heslenfeld, D. J., Schweren, L. J. S., Ambrosino, S., Oranje, B., de Zeeuw, P., Chaim-Avancini, T. M., Rosa, P. G. P., Zanetti, M. V., Malpas, C. B., Kohls, G., von Polier, G. G., Seitz, J., Biederman, J., Doyle, A. E., Dale, A. M., van Erp, T. G. M., Epstein, J. N., Jernigan, T. L., Baur-Streubel, R., Ziegler, G. C., Zierhut, K. C., Schrantee, A., Høvik, M. F., Lundervold, A. J., Kelly, C., McCarthy, H., Skokauskas, N., O’Gorman Tuura, R. L., Calvo, A., Lera-Miguel, S., Nicolau, R., Chantiluke, K. C., Christakou, A., Vance, A., Cercignani, M., Gabel, M. C., Asherson, P., Baumeister, S., Brandeis, D., Hohmann, S., Bramati, I. E., Tovar-Moll, F., Fallgatter, A. J., Kardatzki, B., Schwarz, L., Anikin, A., Baranov, A., Gogberashvili, T., Kapilushniy, D., Solovieva, A., El Marroun, H., White, T., Karkashadze, G., Namazova-Baranova, L., Ethofer, T., Mattos, P., Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., Plessen, K. J., Kuntsi, J., Mehta, M. A., Paloyelis, Y., Harrison, N. A., Bellgrove, M. A., Silk, T. J., Cubillo, A. I., Rubia, K., Lazaro, L., Brem, S., Walitza, S., Frodl, T., Zentis, M., Castellanos, F. X., Yoncheva, Y. N., Haavik, J., Reneman, L., Conzelmann, A., Lesch, K.-P., Pauli, P., Reif, A., Tamm, L., Konrad, K., Oberwelland Weiss, E., Busatto, G. F., Louza, M. R., Durston, S., Hoekstra, P. J., Oosterlaan, J., Stevens, M. C., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Vilarroya, O., Fair, D. A., Nigg, J. T., Thompson, P. M., Buitelaar, J. K., Faraone, S. V., Shaw, P., Tiemeier, H., Bralten, J., & Franke, B.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- The Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands (Hoogman, Guimaraes, Shumskaya, Wolfers, Bralten, Franke); the Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands (Hoogman, Shumskaya, Mennes, Wolfers, Buitelaar, Bralten, Franke); the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands (Muetzel, El Marroun, White, Tiemeier); the Department of...
- ORCID
- Hoogman, Martine
- Muetzel, Ryan
- Guimaraes, Joao P.
- Shumskaya, Elena
- Mennes, Maarten
- Zwiers, Marcel P.
- Jahanshad, Neda
- Sudre, Gustavo
- Wolfers, Thomas
- Earl, Eric A.
- Hartman, Catharina A.
- Schweren, Lizanne J.S.
- Ambrosino, Sara
- Oranje, Bob
- Malpas, Charles B.
- Kohls, Gregor
- Seitz, Jochen
- Biederman, Joseph
- Doyle, Alysa E.
- Dale, Anders M.
- Epstein, Jeffery N.
- Jernigan, Terry L.
- Ziegler, Georg C.
- Schrantee, Anouk
- Lundervold, Astri J.
- Kelly, Clare
- Skokauskas, Norbert
- Nicolau, Rosa
- Chantiluke, Kaylita C.
- Christakou, Anastasia
- Vance, Alasdair
- Cercignani, Mara
- Gabel, Matt C.
- Asherson, Philip
- Baumeister, Sarah
- Hohmann, Sarah
- Bramati, Ivanei E.
- Tovar-Moll, Fernanda
- Fallgatter, Andreas J.
- Gogberashvili, Tinatin
- White, Tonya
- Namazova-Baranova, Leyla
- Ethofer, Thomas
- Banaschewski, Tobias
- Coghill, David
- Plessen, Kerstin J.
- Kuntsi, Jonna
- Mehta, Mitul A.
- Paloyelis, Yannis
- Harrison, Neil A.
- Bellgrove, Mark A.
- Cubillo, Ana I.
- Rubia, Katya
- Brem, Silvia
- Walitza, Susanne
- Frodl, Thomas
- Castellanos, Francisco X.
- Yoncheva, Yuliya N.
- Haavik, Jan
- Reneman, Liesbeth
- Conzelmann, Annette
- Lesch, Klaus-Peter
- Pauli, Paul
- Reif, Andreas
- Tamm, Leanne
- Konrad, Kerstin
- Busatto, Geraldo F.
- Hoekstra, Pieter J.
- Oosterlaan, Jaap
- Stevens, Michael C.
- Fair, Damien A.
- Nigg, Joel T.
- Thompson, Paul M.
- Buitelaar, Jan K.
- Faraone, Stephen V.
- Shaw, Philip
- Tiemeier, Henning
- Bralten, Janita
- Franke, Barbara
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2019-07-01
- Volume
- 176
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 531-542
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- PMC
- PMC6879185
- OpenAlex
- W2942374094
- Semantic Scholar
- 2453687a9ff1c5d9c3eae3befdb8c935b43d0a72
- Cited by
- 467
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 63 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 18 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 37.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Own your potential (DEAKIN) (submittedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- IRIS (submittedVersion)
- JuSER (Forschungszentrum Jülich) (submittedVersion)
- DZNE Pub (submittedVersion)
- RWTH Publications (RWTH Aachen) (submittedVersion)
- SERVAL (Université de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (81020108022, FP7/2007-2013)
- U.S. Department of Defense
- Autism Speaks
- U.S. Department of Justice
- Eli Lilly and Company
- Massachusetts General Hospital
- Yale University
- American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
- Oregon Health and Science University
- University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
- Ohio State University
- Leon Levy Foundation (R01MH083246)
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center
- Florida International University
- Brandeis University
- Johns Hopkins University
- University of Pittsburgh
- University of Cincinnati
- McGill University
- Virginia Commonwealth University
- Sunovion
- Health Research Board (FP7/2007-2013)
- Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin Research Institute
- Children's Hospital Foundation
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute
- Royal Children's Hospital Foundation
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers
- Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino
- York University
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0616-10040)
- King's College London (278948)
- University of Oxford
- European Commission (643051, 602450, 2007–2013, Eat2beNICE, FP7 2007-2013, 278948, HORIZON2020, 728018, FP7/2007, 667302, 602805)
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (KFO 112, IRTG1328, RE1632/5‐1, TRR‐58, Z02, RE1632/5‐1, KFO125, 602805, FP7/2007–2013, Eat2beNICE, 728018, 667302, SFB TRR 58)
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (FP7/2007-2013, 32362, 130237, 136249)
- Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (8100059, 30970802, FP7/2007-2013, FP7/2007, 81020108022)
- ZonMw (60-60600-97-193, 912.11.021)
- Radboud Universiteit
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (FP7/2007-2013, 278948)
- Generalitat de Catalunya
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (91776384, 400.17.602, 602805, 433‐09‐242, 175.010.2007.010, 453-10-005, FP7 2007-2013, VICI 453-10-005, 05613015, 016‐130‐669, 728018, 433‐09‐229, 667302, 60-60600-97-193)
- Accare
- Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (PI12/01139, PI12/, SAF2012)
- Universitat de València
- Universitair Medisch Centrum Utrecht
- Shire
- Stavros Niarchos Foundation (R01MH083246)
- Universitetet i Bergen
- Universitair Medisch Centrum Groningen
- Universidade de São Paulo
- Universitat de Barcelona
- Radboud Universitair Medisch Centrum
- Universität Zürich
- Otsuka Pharmaceutical
- RWTH Aachen University
- European College of Neuropsychopharmacology
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg
- Haukeland Universitetssjukehus
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning
- Servier
- H. Lundbeck A/S
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh099064-05, FP7/2007-2013, K99-R00, 5t32mh067763-10, R21TR003103, Consortium grant U54 EB020403, RR15241, MH099064, K99/R00 MH091238, MH091238, HD24061, P41 RR15241, T32MH67763, EB020403, RR-00052, MH086654, UL1TR002369)
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Oregon Clinical and Translational Research Institute
- Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (HD-24061)
- University of California, San Diego (R01MH085328)
- University of California, San Francisco
- University of California, Irvine
- College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati
- Medical Research Council (G03001896)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (384419, 384419 and 569533, 569533)
- Universitat Politècnica de València
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH086654, R01 MH 62873, K23MH087770, MH091238, R01-MH099064, K99MH091238, R01MH115357, MH115357, R01MH094639, K99/R00, R01MH081803, R01 MH86654, R01MH083246, R01MH085328, R01MH062873, R00MH091238, M01 RR00052, R01MH078160, T32MH-067763, U01MH099059, R01MH086654, MH099064)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (HHSN271200800009C, U01DA041148)
- National Institute of Nursing Research
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS048527)
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (U54EB020403)
- National Center for Research Resources (P41RR015241, M01RR000052)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P30HD024061)
- Cilag
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, cortical surface area, cortical thickness, brain structure, frontal cortex, family influence, endophenotypes, attention deficits, children, adolescents, adults
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Cerebral Cortex, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Neuroimaging
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