Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: a cross-sectional mega-analysis
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BACKGROUND Neuroimaging studies show structural alterations in several brain regions in children and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Through the formation of the worldwide ENIGMA ADHD Working Group, we addressed weaknesses of prior imaging studies and meta-analyses in sample size and methodological heterogeneity. METHODS Our sample comprised 1713 participants with ADHD and 1529 controls from 23 sites (age range: 4–63 years; 66% males). Individual sites analyzed magnetic resonance imaging brain scans with harmonized protocols. Case-control differences in subcortical structures and intracranial volume (ICV) were assessed through mega-and meta-analysis. FINDINGS The volumes of the accumbens (Cohen’s d=−0.15), amygdala (d=−0.19), caudate (d=−0.11), hippocampus (d=−0.11), putamen (d=−0.14), and ICV (d=−0.10) were found to be smaller in cases relative to controls. Effect sizes were highest in children, case-control differences were not present in adults. Explorative lifespan modeling suggested a delay of maturation and a delay of degeneration. Psychostimulant medication use or presence of comorbid psychiatric disorders did not influence results, nor did symptom scores correlate with brain volume. INTERPRETATION Using the largest data set to date, we extend the brain maturation delay theory for ADHD to include subcortical structures and refute medication effects on brain volume suggested by earlier meta-analyses. We add new knowledge about bilateral amygdala, accumbens, and hippocampus reductions in ADHD, and provide unprecedented precision in effect size estimates. Lifespan analyses suggest that, in the absence of well-powered longitudinal studies, the ENIGMA cross-sectional sample across six decades of life provides a means to generate hypotheses about lifespan trajectories in brain phenotypes. FUNDING National Institutes of Health
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Children with ADHD have slightly reduced total cortical surface area and smaller subcortical regions, with differences not seen in adolescents or adults and all differences small to very small.
“An analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 36 cohorts with a total of over 4,100 participants found slightly reduced total cortical surface area in children with ADHD. The same team found some subcortical regions of the brain were smaller in children with ADHD, mainly in frontal, cingulate and temporal regions with some reductions in cortical thickness in temporal regions”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
The Results (Effect of age; page unavailable) report smaller subcortical volumes in children with ADHD and no significant case–control differences in adults, but they do report a significant hippocampal difference in adolescents. The Methods (Contributing studies and Neuroimaging; page unavailable) describe 23 cohorts and measurements of subcortical volumes, not the claimed 36 cohorts, total cortical surface area, or cortical thickness. The reported effect sizes are small, but this source does not support the cortical findings attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredADHD medications are not associated with brain structure deficits but with improved brain function in inferior frontal and striatal regions.
“Meta-analyses and systematic reviews showed that the medications used to treat ADHD are not associated with observed deficits in brain structure (Hoogman et al., 2017; Hoogman et al., 2019; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2013), but with improved brain function, most prominently in inferior frontal and striatal regions (Hart et al., 2013; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
The Results (Effect of medication) found no subcortical volume differences between participants with ADHD who had and had not used stimulant medication, and the Discussion says the observed brain differences were not attributable to medication effects. This supports the structural part of the citation, but the study examined stimulant use and measured brain volumes, not all ADHD medications or all structural deficits; the Discussion also cautions that its cross-sectional design was not optimal for testing medication effects. The claim about improved brain function is attached to other citations, not this one. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredADHD medication treatment had no effect on brain structure in ENIGMA-ADHD studies of 4,180 patients across 36 cohorts.
“Medication treatment for ADHD had no effect on brain structure in studies of 4,180 ADHD patients in the ENIGMA-ADHD Working Group set of 36 cohorts from around the world (Hoogman et al., 2017; Hoogman et al., 2019).”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
The Results (Effect of medication; page unavailable) report no brain-volume differences between participants who had and had not used stimulant medication. But the Abstract (Methods; page unavailable) gives 1,713 participants with ADHD and 1,529 controls from 23 sites—not 4,180 ADHD patients across 36 cohorts. The Discussion also cautions that the cross-sectional design was not optimal for testing medication effects, so finding no difference does not establish that treatment had no effect on brain structure. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA meta-analysis of 1713 persons with ADHD and 1529 controls found volumetric reductions in the accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, and putamen.
“A meta-analysis of 1713 persons with ADHD and 1529 controls found volumetric reductions in the accumbens, amygdala, caudate, hippocampus, and putamen (201).”
From The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities (2018) · cites this paper as [201]
The Discussion reports 1713 participants with ADHD and 1529 controls, and the Results report significantly smaller volumes in all five named regions in the mega-analysis. However, the Results distinguish that analysis from the case-control meta-analysis, in which the accumbens and hippocampus differences were not significant. Calling the five-region finding a meta-analysis result therefore overstates the source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe largest recent meta- and mega-analysis of subcortical structural imaging studies across 23 sites including more than 1713 ADHD patients and over 1500 controls found additional volume reductions besides the basal ganglia in limbic areas such as amygdala and hippocampus.
“The largest recent meta- and mega-analysis of subcortical structural imaging studies across 23 sites including more than 1713 ADHD patients and over 1500 controls, found additional volume reductions besides the basal ganglia in limbic areas such as amygdala and hippocampus (Hoogman et al., 2017).”
From Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation (2018) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
fMRI findings parallel evidence from structural MRI studies for more abnormal basal ganglia deficits in childhood than adult ADHD.
“The fMRI findings parallel evidence from structural MRI studies for more abnormal basal ganglia deficits in childhood than adult ADHD (Norman et al., 2016; Rubia, 2016; Hoogman et al., 2017).”
From Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation (2018) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
Significantly reduced total brain volume or intracranial volume are found in patients with neurodevelopmental-related psychiatric disorders, including ADHD and schizophrenia, which might be caused by disruption of early brain development or underdevelopment.
“Significantly reduced TBV or ICV are found in patients with neurodevelopmental-related psychiatric disorders, including ADHD (Hoogman et al., 2017) and schizophrenia (Kahn & Sommer, 2015), which might be caused by disruption of early brain development or underdevelopment (Woodward & Heckers, 2015)”
From Early-Initiated Childhood Reading for Pleasure: Associations with Better Cognitive Performance, Mental Well-being and Brain Structure in Young Adolescence (2024) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
Patients with attention disorder have decreased subcortical regions including the caudate and putamen, as well as whole intracranial volume.
“patients with attention disorder have decreased subcortical regions including the caudate and putamen, as well as whole ICV (Hoogman et al., 2017)”
From Early-Initiated Childhood Reading for Pleasure: Associations with Better Cognitive Performance, Mental Well-being and Brain Structure in Young Adolescence (2024) · cites this paper as Hoogman et al., 2017
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“Significantly reduced TBV or ICV are found in patients with neurodevelopmental-related psychiatric disorders, including ADHD (Hoogman et al., 2017) and schizophrenia (Kahn & Sommer, 2015), which might be caused by disruption of early brain development or underdevelopment (Woodward & Heckers, 2015).”
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Miao, B., Zhang, L. L., Guan, J. L., Meng, Q. F., & Zhang, Y. L. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2915988 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Stojanovski, S., Felsky, D., Viviano, J. D., Shahab, S., Bangali, R., Burton, C. L., Devenyi, G. A., O’Donnell, L. J., Szatmari, P., Chakravarty, M. M., et al. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.06.024 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Mooney, M. A., Bhatt, P., Hermosillo, R. J. M., Ryabinin, P., Nikolas, M., Faraone, S. V., Fair, D. A., Wilmot, B., & Nigg, J. T. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719004148 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuropsychological functioning of individuals at clinical evaluation of adult ADHD
Guo, N., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Koerts, J., Mueller, B. W., Diers, K., Mroß, A., Mette, C., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. (2021) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-020-02281-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
The effects of ADHD on cognitive performance
Claesdotter, E., Cervin, M., Åkerlund, S., Råstam, M., & Lindvall, M. (2018) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2017.1402951 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Isfandnia, F., El Masri, S., Radua, J., & Rubia, K. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105703 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationContreras, D., Piña, R., Carvallo, C., Godoy, F., Ugarte, G., Zeise, M., Rozas, C., & Morales, B. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23137099 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Brain structure and function in school-aged children with sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms
Camprodon-Rosanas, E., Pujol, J., Martínez-Vilavella, G., Blanco-Hinojo, L., Medrano-Martorell, S., Batlle, S., Forns, J., Ribas-Fitó, N., Dolz, M., & Sunyer, J. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.09.441 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Structural Brain Changes and Associated Symptoms of ADHD Subtypes in Children.
Mu, S., Wu, H., Zhang, J., & Chang, C. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab276 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
From neurons to brain networks, pharmacodynamics of stimulant medication for ADHD
Parlatini, V., Bellato, A., Murphy, D., & Cortese, S. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105841 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Gharehgazlou, A., Freitas, C., Ameis, S. H., Taylor, M. J., Lerch, J. P., Radua, J., & Anagnostou, E. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa381 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives
Bogdańska-Chomczyk, E., Majewski, M. K., & Kozłowska, A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms262211020 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Future research projects should emphasize long-term, multicenter prospective studies that allow for tracking neurobiological changes over time and their correlation with clinical symptoms and treatment response [208].”
Jung, B., Ahn, K., Justice, C., Norman, L., Price, J., Sudre, G., & Shaw, P. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01906-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationNewcorn, J. H., Ivanov, I., Krone, B., Li, X., Duhoux, S., White, S., Schulz, K. P., Bédard, A.-C. V., Pedraza, J., Adler, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.11.037 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hoogman, M., Bralten, J., Hibar, D. P., Mennes, M., Zwiers, M. P., Schweren, L. S. J., van Hulzen, K. J. E., Medland, S. E., Shumskaya, E., Jahanshad, N., Zeeuw, P. D., Szekely, E., Sudre, G., Wolfers, T., Onnink, A. M. H., Dammers, J. T., Mostert, J. C., Vives-Gilabert, Y., Kohls, G., Oberwelland, E., Seitz, J., Schulte-Rüther, M., Ambrosino, S., Doyle, A. E., Høvik, M. F., Dramsdahl, M., Tamm, L., van Erp, T. G. M., Dale, A., Schork, A., Conzelmann, A., Zierhut, K., Baur, R., McCarthy, H., Yoncheva, Y. N., Cubillo, A., Chantiluke, K., Mehta, M. A., Paloyelis, Y., Hohmann, S., Baumeister, S., Bramati, I., Mattos, P., Tovar-Moll, F., Douglas, P., Banaschewski, T., Brandeis, D., Kuntsi, J., Asherson, P., Rubia, K., Kelly, C., Martino, A. D., Milham, M. P., Castellanos, F. X., Frodl, T., Zentis, M., Lesch, K.-P., Reif, A., Pauli, P., Jernigan, T. L., Haavik, J., Plessen, K. J., Lundervold, A. J., Hugdahl, K., Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Rommelse, N., Heslenfeld, D. J., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Oosterlaan, J., Polier, G. V., Konrad, K., Vilarroya, O., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Soliva, J. C., Durston, S., Buitelaar, J. K., Faraone, S. V., Shaw, P., Thompson, P. M., & Franke, B.
- Affiliations
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour (NL)
- University Medical Center Groningen (NL)
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute (AU)
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- National Human Genome Research Institute (US)
- Universitätsklinikum Aachen (DE)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Bergen (NO)
- Psychiatry Region Zealand (DK)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- Trinity College Dublin (IE)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- King's College London (GB)
- Heidelberg University (DE)
- D’Or Institute for Research and Education (BR)
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (BR)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- University of Zurich (CH)
- University Hospital Magdeburg (DE)
- University Hospital Frankfurt (DE)
- Haukeland University Hospital (NO)
- Capital Region of Denmark (DK)
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Radboud University Medical Center (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
- SUNY Upstate Medical University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hoogman, Martine
- ORCID
- Hoogman, Martine
- Bralten, Janita
- Mennes, Maarten
- Zwiers, Marcel P
- Schweren, Lizanne S J
- Medland, Sarah E
- Shumskaya, Elena
- Jahanshad, Neda
- Sudre, Gustavo
- Wolfers, Thomas
- Onnink, Alberdingk M H
- Dammers, Janneke T
- Mostert, Jeanette C
- Kohls, Gregor
- Oberwelland, Eileen
- Seitz, Jochen
- Ambrosino, Sara
- Doyle, Alysa E
- Tamm, Leanne
- Dale, Anders
- Schork, Andrew
- Conzelmann, Annette
- Yoncheva, Yuliya N
- Cubillo, Ana
- Chantiluke, Kaylita
- Mehta, Mitul A
- Paloyelis, Yannis
- Hohmann, Sarah
- Baumeister, Sarah
- Bramati, Ivanei
- Tovar-Moll, Fernanda
- Douglas, Pamela
- Banaschewski, Tobias
- Kuntsi, Jonna
- Asherson, Philip
- Rubia, Katya
- Kelly, Clare
- Martino, Adriana Di
- Milham, Michael P
- Castellanos, Francisco X
- Frodl, Thomas
- Lesch, Klaus-Peter
- Reif, Andreas
- Pauli, Paul
- Jernigan, Terry L
- Haavik, Jan
- Plessen, Kerstin J
- Lundervold, Astri J
- Hugdahl, Kenneth
- Seidman, Larry J
- Biederman, Joseph
- Rommelse, Nanda
- Hartman, Catharina A
- Hoekstra, Pieter J
- Oosterlaan, Jaap
- Konrad, Kerstin
- Buitelaar, Jan K
- Faraone, Stephen V
- Shaw, Philip
- Thompson, Paul M
- Franke, Barbara
- Venue
- The Lancet Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-04
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 310-319
- ISSN
- 2215-0366 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5933934
- OpenAlex
- W2589105429
- Semantic Scholar
- aaff13fabd3866311343cf9a2a2dc6fcef3bb85f
- Cited by
- 879
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 101 · 2023: 90 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 12.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Lancet Psychiatry (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RWTH Publications (RWTH Aachen) (submittedVersion)
- RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Research Agreement with General Electric Healthcare
- Novartis
- Shire
- Lilly
- Pfizer
- Ironshore
- Akili Interactive Labs
- CogCubed
- Alcobra
- VAYA Pharma
- Neurovance
- Impax
- NeuroLifeSciences
- Otsuka
- McNeil
- Janssen
- Eli Lilly
- National Institutes of Health (U54 EB020403)
- US patent (US20130217707 A1)
- Department of Defense
- US Food and Drug Administration
- Lundbeck
- Magceutics Inc.
- Merck
- PamLab
- Shire Pharmaceuticals Inc.
- SPRITES
- Sunovion
- Vaya Pharma/Enzymotec
- NIH (R01MH62873, R01MH081803, T32MH67763, R01MH083246, K23MH087770, R01MH094639, U01MH099059)
- AACAP
- Forest Research Institute
- Shire Pharmaceuticals Inc
- European College for Neuropsychopharmacology
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (KFO 125, TRR 58/A1 and A5, TRR SFB 58 B06, SFB-TRR 58/B01, Z02, RE1632/5–1)
- European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (602805)
- Health Research Board Ireland
- German Research Foundation (KFO-112, IRTG1328)
- UK Medical Research Council (G03001896)
- Brain and Cognition Excellence Program
- Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (433–09–229, 016–130–669)
- Netherlands Brain Foundation (15F07[2]27)
- BBMRI-NL (CP2010–33)
- European Community's Seventh Framework Programme
- European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (667302)
- Stavros S Niarchos Foundation
- Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (SAF2012–32362, PI12/01139)
- Department of Health of the Government of Catalonia
- Generalitat de Catalunya
- project D8 of the Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft Collaborative Research Center (636)
- UK Department of Health
- NWO Large Investment (1750102007010)
- Radboud University Medical Center
- University Medical Center Groningen and Accare
- VU University Amsterdam
- NWO Brain and Cognition (433–09–242)
- European Union FP7 programmes TACTICS (278948, 602450)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (HHSN271200800009C)
- Marie Curie International Incoming Fellowship within the 7th European Community Framework Programme (327340)
- Australian Research Council (FT110100548)
- National Health and Medical Research Council (APP1103623)
- K G Jebsen Foundation
- United States National Institute of Mental Health (RO1 MH62152, R21 MH091461)
- K G Jebsen Centre for Research on Neuropsychiatric Disorders, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- NIMH (5R01MH101519, U01 MH109536-01)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, subcortical volume, brain structural changes, accumbens, amygdala, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, putamen, intracranial volume, brain maturation, neurodegeneration, children and adults, mega-analysis, T1-weighted imaging, neuroimaging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Brain, Child, Child, Preschool, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Middle Aged, Linear Models, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Neuroimaging
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