The DOI matches its Crossref record; 185 of the 186 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Dissociative identity disorder: An empirical overview
Open accessAbstract
Objective: Despite its long and auspicious place in the history of psychiatry, dissociative identity disorder (DID) has been associated with controversy. This paper aims to examine the empirical data related to DID and outline the contextual challenges to its scientific investigation. Methods: The overview is limited to DID-specific research in which one or more of the following conditions are met: (i) a sample of participants with DID was systematically investigated, (ii) psychometrically-sound measures were utilised, (iii) comparisons were made with other samples, (iv) DID was differentiated from other disorders, including other dissociative disorders, (v) extraneous variables were controlled or (vi) DID diagnosis was confirmed. Following an examination of challenges to research, data are organised around the validity and phenomenology of DID, its aetiology and epidemiology, the neurobiological and cognitive correlates of the disorder, and finally its treatment. Results: DID was found to be a complex yet valid disorder across a range of markers. It can be accurately discriminated from other disorders, especially when structured diagnostic interviews assess identity alterations and amnesia. DID is aetiologically associated with a complex combination of developmental and cultural factors, including severe childhood relational trauma. The prevalence of DID appears highest in emergency psychiatric settings and affects approximately 1% of the general population. Psychobiological studies are beginning to identify clear correlates of DID associated with diverse brain areas and cognitive functions. They are also providing an understanding of the potential metacognitive origins of amnesia. Phase-oriented empirically-guided treatments are emerging for DID. Conclusions: The empirical literature on DID is accumulating, although some areas remain under-investigated. Existing data show DID as a complex, valid and not uncommon disorder, associated with developmental and cultural variables, that is amenable to psychotherapeutic intervention.
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“With an onset during early childhood, DID occurs in the context of maltreatment perpetrated most often by caregivers [2,9,18], and it is delineated by the subjective experience of identity alteration [1].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A large body of systematic empirical research has found individuals with DID consistently report severe histories of childhood neglect and abuse [2].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a treatable mental health condition affecting approximately 1% of adults in the general population [1–4].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“With an onset during early childhood, DID occurs in the context of maltreatment perpetrated most often by caregivers [2,9,18], and it is delineated by the subjective experience of identity alteration [1].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
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In the citing paper
“Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a treatable mental health condition that is associated with a range of psychobiological manifestations.”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
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“A wealth of evidence supports the validity of DID as a diagnosis and the significance of childhood trauma and maltreatment in the development of DID [2,18,62].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
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“In contrast, empirical evidence from neurobiological studies, experimental investigations, and epidemiological surveys strongly supports the validity of DID diagnosis and the importance of maltreatment to its development [2,18,62].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
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“For example, in addition to experiencing symptoms of co-occurring PTSD, people with DID frequently experience depression, anxiety, disordered eating, problematic substance use, suicidal ideation, and self-injury [2].”
From Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Severe early life neurodevelopmental disruptions may also give rise to the experience of multiple fragmented, discontinuous, and disembodied selves, such as those experienced in dissociative identity disorder (DID), a condition highly co-existent with early and severe traumatization ( Reinders et al., 2003 ; Dorahy et al., 2014 ; Schlumpf et al., 2014 ; Reinders and Veltman, 2021 ).”
From The brain-body disconnect: A somatic sensory basis for trauma-related disorders (2022) · cites this paper as Dorahy et al., 2014
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Citations
Cites
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Levin, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2022.768201 · Cited by 195
The brain-body disconnect: A somatic sensory basis for trauma-related disorders
Kearney, B. E., & Lanius, R. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.1015749 · Cited by 154
“Severe early life neurodevelopmental disruptions may also give rise to the experience of multiple fragmented, discontinuous, and disembodied selves, such as those experienced in dissociative identity disorder (DID), a condition highly co-existent with early and severe traumatization (Reinders et al., 2003; Dorahy et a…”
BackgroundBrand, B. L., Sar, V., Stavropoulos, P., Krüger, C., Korzekwa, M., Martínez-Taboas, A., & Middleton, W. (2016) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000100 · Cited by 153
“Recent reviews indicate an expanding and important evidence base for this subtype.(14,36,46) Notwithstanding the upsurge in authoritative research”
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“…with overlapping symptoms might be explained by having a different etiology. dissociative disorders are generally thought to be caused by childhood trauma (Dorahy et al., 2014), whereas schizophrenia spectrum disorders were originally thought to be more biological in nature (Klerman, 1978).”
BackgroundBiomarkers of Pathological Dissociation: A Systematic Review
Roydeva, M. I., & Reinders, A. A. T. S. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.019 · Cited by 116
Metadata
- Authors
- Dorahy, M. J., Brand, B. L., Şar, V., Krüger, C., Stavropoulos, P., Martínez-Taboas, A., Lewis-Fernández, R., & Middleton, W.
- Affiliations
- University of Canterbury (NZ)
- Towson University (US)
- Istanbul University (TR)
- University of Pretoria (ZA)
- Adults Surviving Child Abuse, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Psychology, Carlos Albizu University, San Juan, Puerto Rico
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, USA
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Venue
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2014-05
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 402-417
- ISSN
- 0004-8674 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1614
- OpenAlex
- W2118227624
- Cited by
- 225
- References
- 186
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 2.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- dissociative identity disorder, dissociative disorders, diagnostic validity, childhood trauma, amnesia, neurobiology, cognitive correlates, metacognition, psychotherapy
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Dissociative Identity Disorder, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychotherapy, Reproducibility of Results, Neuroimaging
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