Mental Health Issues in Long-Term Solitary and “Supermax” Confinement
Abstract
This article discusses the recent increase in the use of solitary-like confinement, especially the rise of so-called supermax prisons and the special mental health issues and challenges they pose. After briefly discussing the nature of these specialized and increasingly widespread units and the forces that have given rise to them, the article reviews some of the unique mental-health-related issues they present, including the large literature that exists on the negative psychological effects of isolation and the unusually high percentage of mentally ill prisoners who are confined there. It ends with a brief discussion of recent caselaw that addresses some of these mental health issues and suggests that the courts, though in some ways appropriately solicitous of the plight of mentally ill supermax prisoners, have overlooked some of the broader psychological problems these units create.
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Comparable research on social deprivation in humans is scarce, but studies of extreme isolation like solitary confinement suggest increased distress, depression, aggression, and self-harm in adults.
“Comparable research on social deprivation in humans is scarce, but a small number of studies have investigated the effects of extreme forms of isolation like solitary confinement. They suggest that such isolation in prison leads to increased distress, depression, and aggression as well as increased prevalence of self harm in adults.57”
From The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health (2020) · cites this paper as [57]
Symptoms of psychological distress were reported in around half the participants, with one-fifth demonstrating severe psychopathology.
“Symptoms of psychological distress was reported in around half the participants with one-fifth demonstrating severe psychopathology [26,27].”
Various studies of solitary confinement in incarceration demonstrate that mental health issues are more likely to occur.
“Various studies pertaining to solitary confinement in incarceration demonstrate mental health issues are more likely to occur.”
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- Authors
- Haney, C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Corresponding author
- Haney, Craig
- ORCID
- Haney, Craig
- Venue
- Crime & Delinquency
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2003-01
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 124-156
- ISSN
- 0011-1287 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-387X
- OpenAlex
- W2115130192
- Cited by
- 537
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 28.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Crime & Delinquency (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Keywords
- solitary confinement, supermax prisons, prison mental health, psychological effects of isolation, mentally ill prisoners, long-term confinement
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