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Cited by 479Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisHealth disparities and outcomesCriminal Justice and Penology

Incarceration and Health

Open access
Massoglia, Michael, Pridemore, William Alex·2015·Annual Review of Sociology
DOI 10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112326PMC PMC6124689
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Abstract

The expansion of the penal system has been one of the most dramatic trends in contemporary American society. A wealth of research has examined the impact of incarceration on a range of later life outcomes and has considered how the penal system has emerged as a mechanism of stratification and inequality in the United States. In this article, we review the literature from a comparatively new vein of this research: the impact of incarceration on health outcomes. We first consider the impact of incarceration on a range of individual outcomes, from chronic health conditions to mortality. We then consider outcomes beyond the individual, including the health of family members and community health outcomes. Next, we discuss mechanisms linking incarceration and health outcomes before closing with a consideration of limitations in the field and directions for future research.

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Crossref · 10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112326

Cites

112 of 112 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 63 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    This review found evidence of short- and long-term positive effects of incarceration on health.

    “Our review reveals evidence of such potential short- and long-term positive effects of incarceration on health (Mumola 2007; Patterson 2010; Rosen et al. 2011, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mumola 2007

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    • cites Patterson 2010

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    • cites Rosen et al. 2011

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  • Premisecitation

    Whether a person was incarcerated matters more for health than how long the incarceration lasted.

    “the impact of the length of incarceration on health appears to be less important than the fact of incarceration itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schnittker & John (2007)

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  • Premisecitation

    People with an incarceration history report more chronic health problems after than before their imprisonment.

    “individuals with a history of incarceration report more chronic health problems after their period of incarceration than before.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schnittker & John (2007)

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  • Premisecitation

    For disadvantaged minorities, imprisonment rates are five to eight times the rates of comparable whites.

    “rates of incarceration are five to eight times higher than rates for similarly situated whites (Pettit & Western 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pettit & Western 2004

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  • Premisecitation

    After controlling for pre-prison chronic health, incarceration is linked to a negative shift in health status.

    “the authors accounted for chronic health problems prior to prison, which allowed them to demonstrate empirically that incarceration is associated with a negative change in health status.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schnittker & John (2007)

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  • May combine two claims. 28
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 18

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    Premisecitation

    Having an incarcerated family member raises women's likelihood of heart attack, stroke, obesity, or fair/poor health, but not men's.

    “Having a family member incarcerated increased the likelihood of women to experience a heart attack, stroke, or obesity or to have fair to poor health. There was no relationship found among males who had a family member incarcerated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lee et al. (2014)

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    Premisecitation

    Incarceration has broad effects on childhood health and well-being, including more mental health and behavioral problems.

    “Wakefield & Wildeman (2013) concluded incarceration has wide-ranging effects on childhood health and well-being, including increasing mental health and behavioral problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wakefield & Wildeman (2013)

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    Premisecitation

    Incarceration raises BMI, with the strongest effects among blacks and less educated people.

    “found that being incarcerated increases BMI. The effects varied, however, with strongest effects for blacks and for individuals with less education.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Houle (2014)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Incarceration has become a stratification mechanism in American society and adds to racial inequality.

    “the current state of the field shows incarceration has emerged as a mechanism of stratification in American society and contributes to racial inequality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Incarceration is correlated with worse self-rated health, and having been incarcerated matters more than its duration.

    “Massoglia (2008a) found that incarceration is correlated with lower self-reported health and that having been incarcerated was more consequential than the length of incarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Massoglia (2008a)

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    Premisecitation

    The US incarceration rate was roughly flat for five decades before 1975 and then rose about fivefold.

    “The incarceration rate, which was roughly stable for 50 years prior to 1975, increased approximately fivefold since 1975 (Pettit & Western 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pettit & Western 2004

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    Premisecitation

    Formerly incarcerated people suffer disproportionately from infectious diseases and stress-related illness.

    “those who had been incarcerated disproportionately suffer from infectious diseases (e.g., hepatitis, tuberculosis) and stress-related illness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Massoglia (2008b)

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    Premisecitation

    Parental incarceration is associated with higher body mass in female children but not male children.

    “parental incarceration is associated with increased body mass among female, but not male, children of those who were incarcerated.”
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    • cites Roettger & Boardman (2012)

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    Premisecitation

    Incarceration significantly affected AIDS infection rates for both sexes, and higher incarceration among black men explains much of the racial disparity in AIDS among black women.

    “The authors found that incarceration had a significant effect on AIDS infection rates for both males and females and concluded that a large proportion of the racial disparities in AIDS infections among black women can be explained by higher incarceration rates among black men ( Johnson & Raphael 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Johnson & Raphael 2009

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    Premisecitation

    State-level panel data show incarceration is associated with worse population health, most strongly for infant mortality and female life expectancy.

    “One such study used state-level panel data stretching almost 25 years and found an association between incarceration and poorer population health. This association is strongest for infant mortality and female life expectancy (Wildeman 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wildeman 2012

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    Premisecitation

    The period right after release from prison is extremely dangerous; mortality was 3.5 times the general population overall and about 13 times higher in the first two weeks.

    “Adjusting for age, sex, and ethnicity, the mortality rate for recently released inmates during the entire follow-up period was 777 per 100,000 person-years, which was 3.5 times higher than the rate for the general population. In the first two weeks following release, the death rate was nearly 2,600 per 100,000 person-years, or approximately 13 times higher than the rate for the general population.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Binswanger et al. (2007)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Much research discusses stress and stigma.

    “A great deal of research discusses stress and stigma.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Without careful design, this research remains vulnerable to selection-bias critiques.

    “Absent such careful consideration, this area of research remains open to critiques of selection bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The correlates of incarceration closely overlap with the determinants of poor health.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Data scarcity is among the most urgent problems in incarceration-health research.

    “One of the most pressing issues in this area is data scarcity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Some datasets capture more invasive imprisonment, while others capture only a few days in jail.

    “Without giving preference to one over the other, some data sets appear to capture more invasive spells of imprisonment, whereas others might capture just a few days in jail (e.g., see collection protocol differences between the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Comparative sociological work on incarceration and health is relatively sparse.

    “Along similar lines, although the United States is the world leader in terms of incarceration, comparative sociologically oriented work on incarceration and health is relatively sparse (Pridemore 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pridemore 2014

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    Premisecitation

    Incarceration is associated with lower earnings growth and a wage penalty of 10-30%.

    “Incarceration is associated with lower earnings growth over one’s employment career (Sampson & Laub 1993) and with a wage penalty of 10–30% (Western et al. 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sampson & Laub 1993

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    • cites Western et al. 2001

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Incarceration is partially responsible for aggregate-level ethnic wage inequality in the United States.

    “Western (2002) found the impact of incarceration on wage mobility so strong and the prevalence of imprisonment among black men so high, he concluded that incarceration is partially responsible for aggregate-level ethnic wage inequality in the United States.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Western 2002

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    About 25% of US inmates have latent TB (6-10 times general population), 17% have hepatitis C (vs 2%), and 1.5% are HIV positive (vs 0.3%).

    “Approximately 25% of US inmates have latent tuberculosis infection, which is 6 to 10 times higher compared with the general population (Bick 2007). Approximately 17% of inmates have hepatitis C compared with approximately 2% of the general population, with the prison population housing nearly 30% of all hepatitis C cases in the United States (Varan et al. 2014). Compared with approximately 0.3% of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bick 2007

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    • cites Varan et al. 2014

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    • cites Maruschak 2012

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In US prisons from 2001 to 2004, annual mortality averaged 250 per 100,000 prisoners; 89% of deaths were internal, led by heart disease, cancer, liver disease, AIDS, and suicide.

    “There were approximately 3,000 deaths per year in US prisons between 2001 and 2004, corresponding to an average annual mortality rate of 250 per 100,000 prisoners. Eighty-nine percent of prison deaths were due to internal causes, with suicide (6% of all deaths) the only external cause in the 10 leading causes of death among prisoners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mumola (2007)

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    Premisecitation

    Education, marriage, social support, employment, and income-components of social integration and prosocial bonds-protect against illness and death.

    “Social integration and prosocial bonds, including education, marriage, social support, employment, and income, provide protective effects against morbidity and mortality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Verbrugge 1979

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    • cites Ross & Mirowsky 1995

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    • cites Backlund et al. 1996

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    Premisecitation

    Former prisoners had increased risks of diagnosed stress-related illnesses and self-reported stress-related conditions.

    “Massoglia (2008a) found that former prisoners had increased risks of (a) being medically diagnosed with stress-related illnesses such as psychological problems, hypertension, and heart disease, and (b) self-reporting stress-related conditions such as chest pain and depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Massoglia 2008a

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    Premisecitation

    Income is inversely related to both illness and death.

    “Declines in perceived health and physical functioning are slowed by full-time employment (Ross & Mirowsky 1995) and income is inversely associated with both morbidity and mortality (Backlund et al. 1996, Ecob & Davey Smith 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Backlund et al. 1996

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    • cites Ecob & Davey Smith 1999

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inmates have more medical problems than noninmates and the general population.

    “We know inmates have more health problems than noninmates do, but moving toward causal claims places greater demands on the data, including repeated measures over time that allow scholars to employ a full range of analytical approaches.”
    • Also stated in: § Proper Comparison Groups · plain
      “We know that inmates have increased medical problems compared with the general population (Binswanger et al. 2009), but absent more information it remains unclear whether differences are a function of incarceration or of characteristics that are related both to health and to the likelihood of incarceration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Binswanger et al. 2009

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premiseown data

    Much research, including the authors', compares inmates with noninmates after covariate adjustment.

    “Much work, including some of ours, compares inmates with noninmates after adjusting for a number of covariates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    White men face higher mortality risk in prison than outside, driven largely by infectious diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.

    “The results of these studies suggest white men are at an increased risk of mortality when living in prison than when not living in prison, and that this risk is driven largely by deaths due to infectious diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Research has not examined state or regional variation in the incarceration-health relationship.

    “In addition, work has not considered whether there is state or regional variation in the incarceration–health relationship.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    The literature uses a broad definition of incarceration.

    “The literature takes a fairly broad view of the term incarceration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Incarceration is both an acute stressor and a chronic stressor.

    “Incarceration is an acute stressor. Imprisonment is a major life event that requires dramatic changes in a short period across a number of life circumstances (Massoglia 2008a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Massoglia 2008a

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    • cites Pearlin 1989

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Each additional year in prison was associated with a nearly 16% increase in odds of death and a two-year decline in life expectancy.

    “Her results showed that each additional year in prison produced a nearly 16% increase in the odds of death and a two-year decline in life expectancy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Patterson (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Marriage is linked to better health and longer life, particularly for men.

    “Marriage has long been associated with better health and increased longevity, especially for men (Verbrugge 1979).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Verbrugge 1979

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Long-term studies of incarceration and premature mortality are few and inconsistent, so strong conclusions require further research.

    “Thus, only a handful of studies have examined incarceration and premature mortality with a long-term follow-up, and the inconsistent findings suggest further research is required before strong conclusions can be drawn.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisenone given

    Research has shown better that incarceration matters than why it matters.

    “Thus far, research has done a better job showing that incarceration matters rather than why incarceration matters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among ex-prisoners, all-cause mortality was higher than other state residents, with SMRs of 2.08 for whites and 1.03 for blacks.

    “Although all-cause mortality was higher among ex-prisoners than among other state residents, there were large differences by ethnicity. The all-cause SMRs were 2.08 for whites and 1.03 for blacks (though the latter effect was small, it was statistically significant).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rosen et al. (2008)

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Social integration and prosocial bonds probably mediate the link between incarceration and premature death.

    “Given these findings, Pridemore (2014) argued that social integration and prosocial bonds likely play key mediating roles in the relationship between incarceration and premature mortality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pridemore 2014

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Incarcerated blacks had a mortality rate 57% lower than general-population blacks, while incarcerated whites and Hispanics had rates slightly above their general-population counterparts.

    “Incarcerated whites and Hispanics had mortality rates slightly above those for the corresponding groups in the general population, whereas the mortality rate for incarcerated blacks was 57% lower than the rate for blacks in the general population.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mumola (2007)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    About two-thirds of prison deaths, including over 90% of AIDS deaths, came from conditions present at entry.

    “Approximately two-thirds of all deaths, including over 90% of all AIDS-related deaths, resulted from conditions that existed when the inmate entered prison.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mumola (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chronic stress is associated with immune dysfunction, and chronic exposure to hostile conditions can cause lasting immune dysfunction.

    “The psychoneuroimmunology literature, for example, reveals that chronic stress is associated with immune dysfunction (Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser 2005), and research shows that chronic exposure to hostile conditions—a staple of prison life—is associated with immune dysfunction that can last for long periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser 2005

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    Despite many publications, research in this area remains nascent.

    “Despite the wealth of articles published in recent years, research in the area is still at its nascent stages, as is—from a historical context—our understanding of the penal system and its effects on society.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Incarceration may affect women's health differently.

    “Third, compared with men, women have a different set of health needs, suggesting that the incarceration experience may differentially impact women’s health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The last decade has seen sustained research attention to incarceration's health consequences.

    “In the last decade there has been a sustained research focus on the health consequences of incarceration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Precise causal pathways linking stress and stigma to health remain elusive.

    “To date, however, precise specifications of the causal pathways linking these and related factors to health have been elusive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Nearly all studies of the incarceration-health association have used secondary data.

    “To this point nearly all studies of the incarceration–health association employed secondary data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The mental health literature examines incarceration's impact on inmates and their family members.

    “Similar to the literature on physical health, the literature on the mental health consequences of incarceration considers the impact on both inmates (Schnittker et al. 2012) and family members of those who are incarcerated (Turney et al. 2012, Wildeman et al. 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Schnittker et al. 2012

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    • cites Turney et al. 2012

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    • cites Wildeman et al. 2013

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    There is strong evidence that incarceration affects individual, family, and community health.

    “Now that there is strong evidence that incarceration has consequences for individual, family, and community health, it is time to undertake large-scale projects that focus specifically on this association.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other work has shown differential effects of incarceration on family life.

    “Although research has clearly demonstrated a negative impact of incarceration on individual health across a variety of outcomes, other work has demonstrated differential effects of incarceration on family life (Wildeman & Turney 2014), and a consideration of the potentially positive impact of incarceration on health is warranted for a number of reasons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wildeman & Turney 2014

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46 of 46

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Compassionate release lowers mortality in the incarcerated population and raises mortality in the comparable resident population.

    “Compassionate release reduces the mortality rate of the incarcerated population and increases the mortality rate of the comparable resident population.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People who are incarcerated are probably among those most at risk of death from external causes.

    “especially because those incarcerated are probably among the most at risk of death from these causes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The correlates of incarceration closely overlap with the determinants of poor health.

    “Given how closely the correlates of incarceration map over the determinants of poor heath, scholars must pay particular attention to potential bias from selection effects and employ rigorous analytical methods and careful research designs to address it.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Incarcerated people are disproportionately drawn from disadvantaged backgrounds.

    “At the individual level, on average persons who are incarcerated often are drawn disproportionately from a disadvantaged background.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People from disadvantaged backgrounds have less health care access and worse health.

    “Given less access to health care and the generally poorer health status of those from these disadvantaged backgrounds, the correctional institution may provide inmates with opportunities to improve their health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Numerous state prison systems conduct screening and treatment for communicable diseases.

    “Many state prison systems screen for and treat communicable diseases.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A large number of people with treatable sexually transmitted infections pass through correctional facilities.

    “For instance, because data indicate that a large number of individuals with treatable sexually transmitted infections are passing through correctional facilities, screening and treatment in prisons could not only improve individual health but also reduce the prevalence of infections in the general community.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The female incarcerated population is growing much faster than the male population, though it is smaller.

    “First, although much smaller, the size of the female incarcerated population is growing far faster than the size of the male population.”
8 of 8

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • If the stress of incarceration is a mechanism through which individuals' mortality becomes at risk and life expectancy is decreased, then exonerees may be at greater risk than factually guilty individuals.

    “Third, if the stress of incarceration is a mechanism through which individuals' mortality becomes at risk and life expectancy is decreased (Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015), then exonerees may be at greater risk than factually guilty individuals.”

    From Innocence Mortality Tax: The Impact of Wrongful Conviction on Lifespan (2023) · cites this paper as Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015

    The section “Incarceration as an Acute and Chronic Stressor” describes imprisonment as a source of stress with negative health effects. The “Long-Term Effects of Incarceration on Mortality” section reports studies linking incarceration to premature mortality and reduced life expectancy, but does not establish stress as the mechanism for those outcomes. The comparison between exonerees and factually guilty individuals is the citing authors’ inference, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Formerly incarcerated individuals experience mortality threats and shortened lifespans because their criminal history makes it difficult, if not impossible, to recover from the stress and harm of incarceration.

    “Massoglia and Pridemore (2015) suggest that formerly incarcerated individuals experience mortality threats and shortened lifespans because their criminal history makes it difficult, if not impossible, to recover from the stress and harm of incarceration.”

    From Innocence Mortality Tax: The Impact of Wrongful Conviction on Lifespan (2023) · cites this paper as Massoglia and Pridemore (2015)

    The sections on mortality after release and long-term mortality report elevated death risks and, in one study, reduced life expectancy. The section on incarceration as a stressor describes lasting stigma and stress-related health risks, but does not establish that a criminal history prevents recovery or causes the reported mortality effects. The long-term mortality section also reports a return to baseline death risk after a period following release, contrary to the suggestion that recovery may be impossible. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Incarcerated individuals have historically experienced reduced life expectancy.

    “Another group of individuals that has historically experienced reduced life expectancy is incarcerated individuals (see Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015 for an overview).”

    From Innocence Mortality Tax: The Impact of Wrongful Conviction on Lifespan (2023) · cites this paper as Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting accounts of mortality among Black former inmates

    Major

    The paper says Rosen et al. (2008) found fewer all-cause deaths than expected among Black former inmates. Later, it reports an all-cause standardized mortality ratio of 1.03 for the same group, indicating more deaths than expected.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Knapp LG, 2008, Postsecondary Institutions in the United States: Fall 2007, Degrees and Other Awards Conferred: 2006-07, and 12-Month Enrollment: 2006-07 (NCES 2008-159)
  2. Maruschak LM, 2012, HIV in Prisons, 2001–2010
  3. Snyder TD, 2010, Digest of Education Statistics 2009 (NCES 2010–013)

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Massoglia, M., & Pridemore, W. A.
Affiliations
  • University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
  • Georgia State University (US)
ORCID
Pridemore, William Alex
Venue
Annual Review of Sociology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
2015-08-14
Volume
41
Issue
1
Pages
291-310
ISSN
  • 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2115
DOI
10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112326
PMC
PMC6124689
OpenAlex
W2168490448
Cited by
479
References
112
Citations by year
2026: 50 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1
FWCI
7.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD047873)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords
incarceration, health outcomes, chronic disease, mortality, family health, community health, social stratification, health disparities

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-29.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-29.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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