Cited by 1,012Psychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth Education and ValidationSurvey Methodology and Nonresponse

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Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies

Johanson, George A., Brooks, Gordon P.·2010·Educational and Psychological Measurement

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Abstract

Pilot studies are often recommended by scholars and consultants to address a variety of issues, including preliminary scale or instrument development. Specific concerns such as item difficulty, item discrimination, internal consistency, response rates, and parameter estimation in general are all relevant. Unfortunately, there is little discussion in the extant literature of how to determine appropriate sample sizes for these types of pilot studies. This article investigates the choice of sample size for pilot studies from a perspective particularly related to instrument development. Specific recommendations are made for researchers regarding how many participants they should use in a pilot study for initial scale development.

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Method
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Bostrøm, K., Mæhlum, S., Småstuen, M. C., & Storheim, K. (2019) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-019-0490-x · Cited by 16
“As the data in this report were obtained to generate preliminary estimates of treatment effectiveness, no a priori sample size calculation was performed to ensure sufficient statistical power to detect between-group differences in treatment effect [30].”
Method
Development, validation and assessment of the test on knowledge about basic life support and use of automated external defibrillator among schoolchildren
Lesjak, V. B., Šorgo, A., & Strnad, M. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13049-019-0683-6 · Cited by 22
Nurse staffing models in medical‐surgical units of acute care settings: A cross‐sectional study
Assaye, A. M., Wiechula, R., Schultz, T., & Feo, R. (2019) · International Journal of Nursing Practice · doi:10.1111/ijn.12812 · Cited by 15
Development and initial validation of the mental health literacy questionnaire for chinese adults
Wu, J., Wang, C., Lu, Y., Zhu, X., Li, Y., Liu, G., & Guangrong, J. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02603-9 · Cited by 15
Pilot Study on the Impact of a Home-Based Exercise Program on Inflammatory Cytokines and Quality of Life in Men with Prostate Cancer Under Active Surveillance
Moon, C., Gallegos, A. M., Sheikh, B., Kumar, P. A., Liss, M. A., & Patel, D. I. (2022) · Cancer Control · doi:10.1177/10732748221130964 · Cited by 15
“Missing questionnaire data were managed based on the percentage of missing responses per scale and recommendations based on the individual developers.(21,22) Descriptive statistics were performed and are presented at mean ± standard deviation.”
Method
The mediating role of accounting information systems in small and medium enterprise strategies and organizational performance in Iraq
Kareem, H. M., Alsheikh, A. H., Alsheikh, W. H., Dauwed, M., & Meri, A. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03273-1 · Cited by 15
“The questionnaire was tested through a pilot study using 37 participants to enhance the response rate and understanding (Johanson and Brooks, 2010).”
The impacts of digital and learning orientations on supply chain resilience
Lin, Y., Pang, G., Duan, K., Luo, J., Wang, S., & Qu, J. (2024) · Industrial Management & Data Systems · doi:10.1108/imds-04-2024-0379 · Cited by 16
Electroacupuncture for pressure ulcer: a study protocol for a randomized controlled pilot trial
Zhang, Q., Yue, J., & Sun, Z. (2014) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-7 · Cited by 15
Instrument Development of Integrative Health and Wellness Assessment™
McElligott, D., Eckardt, S., Dossey, B. M., Luck, S. L., & Eckardt, P. A. (2017) · Journal of Holistic Nursing · doi:10.1177/0898010117747752 · Cited by 15
Acupuncture for gender differences and similarities in cerebral activity of health volunteers
Li, A., Wang, Y., Zhang, F., Wang, F., Zeng, X., Yue, J., Li, X., & Zhang, Q. (2018) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000013655 · Cited by 15
Degree of Awareness and the Antecedents of the Digital Media Platform: The Case of Mobile Wallets
Chawla, D., & Joshi, H. (2021) · FIIB Business Review · doi:10.1177/23197145211023413 · Cited by 15
“Johanson and Brooks (2009) recommend 15–30 respondents.”
Rasch Model for Validation a User Acceptance Instrument for Evaluating E-learning System
Rachman, T., & Napitupulu, D. B. (2017) · CommIT (Communication and Information Technology) Journal · doi:10.21512/commit.v11i1.2042 · Cited by 19
“[12] recommended 30 participants.”
Culturally modified cognitive processing therapy for Karen refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study
Bernardi, J., Dahiya, M., & Jobson, L. (2019) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2373 · Cited by 16
Measuring Earwax Cortisol Concentration using a non-stressful sampling method
Herane-Vives, A., Ortega, L., Sandoval, R., Young, A. H., Cleare, A. J., Espinoza, S., Hayes, A., & Benöhr, J. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05124 · Cited by 14
“We chose a longitudinal pilot study because this study is intended for investigating about: 1) Novel research questions, 2) Feasibility and suitability of novel methods, 3) Managing potential limitations of the method that may appear during the conduction of the pilot study and 4) Projecting future more extensive clin…”
Method
Formal vs informal demand for credit by women in urban India: a comparative study in slums of Delhi and Mumbai
Malik, S., Maheshwari, G. C., & Singh, A. (2020) · Gender in Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/gm-06-2019-0087 · Cited by 14
Gösterişçi Tüketim Eğilimi Ölçeği’nın (GTE) Türkçe Uyarlaması: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması
ASLAN, M. (2021) · İktisadi İdari ve Siyasal Araştırmalar Dergisi · doi:10.25204/iktisad.848114 · Cited by 14
M‐learning adapted to the ARCS model of motivation and applied to a kinematics course
Arredondo, L. A. L., & Valdés, H. (2021) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22443 · Cited by 14
Challenges of Special Education Teachers in Implementation Individual Education Plan (IEP) For Students With Learning Disabilities (LD)
Wong, M. T., & Rashid, S. M. M. (2022) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v12-i11/15159 · Cited by 14
“According to Johanson and Brooks (2010), the minimum number of samples selected for a pilot study is only 30 people.”
Background
Examining the relationship between gastronomic experience, revisit intention, destination image and destination brand love: a moderating role of cewebrity reviews
Kareem, S. A., & Venugopal, P. (2023) · Leisure/Loisir · doi:10.1080/14927713.2023.2211582 · Cited by 20
“Based on recommendation of Johanson and Brooks (2009), a pilot study was conducted with 30 domestic tourists at Charminar to assess the appropriateness, language, and validity of an instrument.”
Background
Integrating rational and irrational factors towards explicating investment satisfaction and reinvestment intentions: a study in the context of direct residential real estate
Sharmila Devi, R., Perumandla, S., & Bhattacharyya, S. S. (2024) · International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis · doi:10.1108/ijhma-01-2024-0004 · Cited by 14
The Status of First Aid and Its Associations with Health Outcomes among Patients with Traffic Accidents in Urban Areas of Vietnam
Thi, H., Vu, H. M., Ngo, T. T., Vu, G. T., Nguyen, H. L. T., Hoang, M. T., Tran, B. X., Latkin, C. A., Ho, C. S. H., & Ho, R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124600 · Cited by 14
“It is generally suggested that a preliminary survey requires a minimum sample size of 30 participants for a pilot study [8].”
Background
Modeling the Indian households' intention to adopt the solar net metering system
Kumar, V., Kaushik, A. K., & Singh, G. (2022) · Built Environment Project and Asset Management · doi:10.1108/bepam-10-2021-0129 · Cited by 15
Acupuncture for the Treatment of Oculomotor Paralysis: A Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial
Bi, J., Li, W., Yang, Q., Li, B., Meng, Q.-G., & Liu, Y. (2016) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2016/3961450 · Cited by 14
“As a feasibility study, it was estimated that a sample of 40 participants with 20 in each group, assuming a drop-out rate of 20%, would be sufficient to provide data to answer the study questions [37, 38].”
Background
CZECH HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT BASIC GENETIC CONCEPTS: PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Vlčková, J., Kubiatko, M., & Uşak, M. (2016) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/16.15.738 · Cited by 14
Virtual Reality–Guided Meditation for Chronic Pain in Patients With Cancer: Exploratory Analysis of Electroencephalograph Activity
Fu, H., Garrett, B., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., Ofoghi, Z., Taverner, T., Sun, C., & Cheung, T. (2021) · JMIR Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.2196/26332 · Cited by 13
“This is acceptable for this type of inductive study [48].”
Joint Responsibility for Careers
Aburumman, O. J., Omar, K. B., & Barhem, B. (2022) · Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal · doi:10.1007/s10672-021-09401-2 · Cited by 13
Perceived social support mitigates the associations among household chaos and health and well‐being in rural early adolescents
Mei, K., Zhang, F., Zhang, J., Ming, H., Jiang, Y. H., & Huang, S. (2023) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12260 · Cited by 14
Having breakfast has no clinically relevant effect on bioelectrical impedance measurements in healthy adults
Korzilius, J. W., Oppenheimer, S. E., de Roos, N. M., Wanten, G. J. A., & Zweers, H. E. E. (2023) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-023-00882-5 · Cited by 13
“According to the literature, including thirty participants was sufficient to perform a pilot study [13].”
Background
The development of a digital intelligence quotient scale: A new measuring instrument for primary school students in China
Li, J., Ju, S.-Y., Zhu, C., Yuan, Y., Fu, M., Kong, L.-K., & Li, M. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36437 · Cited by 13
“The sample size of 48 students exceeded the suggested criterion of 30 respondents [25].”
Background
Assessing nursing students’ e − health literacy and foresights to global health challenges during COVID − 19 restrictions: A cross-sectional study with a machine learning approach
Kupcu, C., Bodur, G., Küçükkaya, A., & Göktaş, P. (2024) · Nurse Education in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2024.104179 · Cited by 14
Accuracy of teledentistry versus clinical oral examination for aged-care home residents: A pilot study
Sharkawy, M. N., Mohamed, M., & Abbas, H. M. (2025) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.1016/j.tjfa.2024.100001 · Cited by 13
Assessing nursing assistants’ competency in palliative care: An evaluation tool
Karacsony, S., Chang, E. M. L., Johnson, A., Good, A., & Edenborough, M. (2018) · Nurse Education in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2018.09.001 · Cited by 13
A randomized controlled field trial of iBsafe—a novel child safety game app
Dixon, C. A., Ammerman, R. T., Johnson, B. L., Lampe, C., Hart, K. W., Lindsell, C. J., & Mahabee‐Gittens, E. M. (2019) · mHealth · doi:10.21037/mhealth.2019.01.02 · Cited by 13
“A sample size of 60 (30 in each arm) was selected a priori based on recommendations for conducting pilot testing (16).”
Survey Development: Community Involvement in the Design and Implementation Process
Kelley, A., Piccione, C., Fisher, A., Matt, K., Andreini, M., & Bingham, D. (2019) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000001016 · Cited by 13
“The selection of Tribal members was consistent with current literature on survey design, which prioritizes having a sample that accurately represents the population that will be completing the survey rather than having a large sample size.(23) The survey took less than 5 minutes to complete per participant.”

Authors: Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P.
Affiliations: Ohio University (US)
Corresponding author: Johanson, George A.
ORCID: Johanson, George A.
Brooks, Gordon P.
Venue: Educational and Psychological Measurement
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-12-18
Volume: 70
Issue: 3
Pages: 394-400
ISSN: 0013-1644 (ISSN-L)
1552-3888
DOI: 10.1177/0013164409355692
OpenAlex: W1984294110
Cited by: 1,012
References: 19
Citations by year: 2026: 134 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 89 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 9.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Educational and Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Health Education and Validation
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Keywords: pilot study, sample size determination, scale development, instrument development, item difficulty, item discrimination, internal consistency, response rate, parameter estimation

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Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies

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