Cited by 1,012Psychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth Education and ValidationSurvey Methodology and Nonresponse

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 19 of the 19 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies

Johanson, George A., Brooks, Gordon P.·2010·Educational and Psychological Measurement

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Pilot studies are often recommended by scholars and consultants to address a variety of issues, including preliminary scale or instrument development. Specific concerns such as item difficulty, item discrimination, internal consistency, response rates, and parameter estimation in general are all relevant. Unfortunately, there is little discussion in the extant literature of how to determine appropriate sample sizes for these types of pilot studies. This article investigates the choice of sample size for pilot studies from a perspective particularly related to instrument development. Specific recommendations are made for researchers regarding how many participants they should use in a pilot study for initial scale development.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/0013164409355692

Cites

19 of 19 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Sample size of 12 per group rule of thumb for a pilot study
Julious, S. A. (2005) · Pharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1002/pst.185 · Cited by 3,068
Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies
Hertzog, M. A. (2008) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.20247 · Cited by 2,337
Handbook in research and evaluation
(1971) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(71)80129-6 · Cited by 1,488
Bootstrapping: A Nonparametric Approach to Statistical Inference.
Aa, Mooney, C. Z., & Duval, R. D. (1994) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290969 · Cited by 1,365
Bootstrapping
Mooney, C., & Duval, R. (1993) · doi:10.4135/9781412983532 · Cited by 893
Statistical Inference for Coefficient Alpha
Feldt, L. S., Woodruff, D. J., & Salih, F. A. (1987) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662168701100107 · Cited by 526
Statistical rules of thumb
van Belle, G. (2002) · Wiley-Interscience eBooks · Cited by 461
Statistical Rules of Thumb
Nelson, L. S. (2003) · Journal of Quality Technology · doi:10.1080/00224065.2003.11980200 · Cited by 422
WHAT SAMPLE SIZE is "ENOUGH" in INTERNET SURVEY RESEARCH?
Hill, R. L., & Hamilton, W. P. (1998) · Cited by 359
By Design: Planning Research on Higher Education.
Centra, J. A., Light, R. L., Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (1991) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.2307/1982292 · Cited by 266

Show all 19 references

Research works printed but not linked: 3

Crocker, L., 1986, Classical and modern test theory
Hill, R., 1998, Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, 6
Lowry, R., 2008, VassarStats: Website for statistical calculation

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 998

Understanding the moderation effect of age and gender on the relationship between employee career attitude and organizational citizenship behavior: A developing country perspective
Joshi, M., Maheshwari, G. C., & Yadav, R. (2021) · Managerial and Decision Economics · doi:10.1002/mde.3325 · Cited by 7
Model Structure Uncertainty in the Characterization and Growth of Geographic Atrophy
Arslan, J., Benke, K. K., Samarasinghe, G., Sowmya, A., Guymer, R. H., & Baird, P. N. (2021) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.10.6.2 · Cited by 7
Students’ Perspectives on the Use of Differentiated Assessment Tool: Results from an Explanatory Sequential Mixed-Method Pilot Study
Khambari, M. N. M., Majuddin, C., Wong, S. L., Ghazali, N., & Norowi, N. M. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/11667 · Cited by 7
“However, Johanson and Brooks (2009) pointed out that a sample size that range from 10 to 15 is good enough in providing for pilot study.”
Background
Time needed to perform intermittent catheterization in adults with spinal cord injury: A pilot randomized controlled cross-over trial
Gopalakrishnan, K., Nielsen, N. F., Ramirez, A. L., Sørensen, J., Walter, M., & Krassioukov, A. V. (2022) · Continence Reports · doi:10.1016/j.contre.2022.100010 · Cited by 7
Reliability and accuracy of dental MRI for measuring root canal length of incisors and canines: a clinical pilot study
Zidan, M., Schwindling, F. S., Juerchott, A., Mente, J., Nittka, M., Hosseini, Z., Heiland, S., Bendszus, M., & Hilgenfeld, T. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-17889-3 · Cited by 7
Does Sacrococcygeal Skeletal Morphology and Morphometry Influence Pressure Injury Formation in Adults?
Delmore, B. A., Sprigle, S. H., Samim, M., Alfonso, A. R., Lin, L. H., & Chiu, E. S. (2022) · Advances in Skin & Wound Care · doi:10.1097/01.asw.0000874180.84660.8b · Cited by 7
Revising the Lubben Social Network Scale for use in residential long-term care settings
Munn, J., Radey, M. D., Brown, K. L., & Kim, H. (2018) · Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work · doi:10.1080/23761407.2018.1460734 · Cited by 7
“Although the small sample prevented an analysis of the scale’s validity, the sample size exceeds 30, an empirically based recommendation for pilot studies designed to develop instruments (Johanson & Brooks, 2010).”
BackgroundMethod
Effect of Electroacupuncture on Both Side Acupuncture Point GB12 and GB20 for Chronic Tension Type Headache
Jeon, J., & Lee, J. (2019) · Journal of Korean Medicine Rehabilitation · doi:10.18325/jkmr.2019.29.1.21 · Cited by 7
Development, piloting and validation of the Recommending Cardiac Rehabilitation (ReCaRe) instrument
Ski, C. F., Jones, M., Astley, C. M., Neubeck, L., Thompson, D. R., Gallagher, R. D., Du, H., & Clark, R. A. (2019) · Heart & Lung · doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2019.04.008 · Cited by 7
“Smaller samples are considered appropriate in instances of scale development and when estimating test-retest reliability.(30,31) A small sample size means an increase in difficulty to find statistical significance, thus when achieved the differences tend to be practically significant.”
Background
Developing and Measuring the Reliability and Validity of the Factors Influencing the Implementation of ICD-10-AM and Clinical Coding in Saudi Public Hospitals
Alharbi, M. A., Tolchard, B., & Isouard, G. (2019) · Global Journal of Health Science · doi:10.5539/gjhs.v11n10p1 · Cited by 8
“It has been recommended that the sample size of a pilot study should be approximately 10% of the main study (Hertzog, 2008; Johanson & Brooks, 2009; Lackey & Wingate, 1998).”
Background
Smart Emergency Detection Framework by IR4.0 for Safety Management among G7 Contractors: A Pilot Study
Kasim, N. B., Razali, S. A., & Ariffin, K. M. (2021) · International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering Technology · doi:10.30880/ijscet.2021.12.05.032 · Cited by 7
L’influence des réseaux sociaux sur le comportement du consommateur : le cas de l’industrie des biens luxueux
Hani, S., Azouri, M., & Azouri, A. (2018) · La Revue Gestion et Organisation · doi:10.1016/j.rgo.2018.04.001 · Cited by 7
“La taille de cet échantillon de commodité et conforme aux conditions scientifiques établies par Johanson et Brook (Johanson & Brooks, 2010).”
Background
An investigation of Facebook usage by university students in Saudi Arabia
Aljasir, S. A. (2015) · Coventry University Open Collections (Coventry university) · Cited by 7
A Comparative Analysis of Variations in Synthetic Biology Regulation
Trump, B. D. (2016) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.15303.70566 · Cited by 7
eConsult specialist quality of response (eSQUARE): a novel tool to measure specialist correspondence via electronic consultation
Tran, C., Archibald, D., Humphrey-Murto, S., Wood, T. J., Dudek, N., Liddy, C., & Keely, E. (2022) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x21998216 · Cited by 6
“26,27 We thus opted for 10 eConsults for each quality category (30 in total), and we aimed to recruit 10 raters to apply the assessment tool to each eConsult.”
Method
Developing the sexual and reproductive health knowledge scale in emergencies
Ekrem, E. C., & Kurt, A. (2023) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2023.08.392 · Cited by 8
A new communication approach to encourage lung cancer screening action in rural eligible populations
Boatman, D., McCauley-Hixenbaugh, L., Starkey, A., Allen, A. R., & Kennedy-Rea, S. K. (2024) · PEC Innovation · doi:10.1016/j.pecinn.2024.100298 · Cited by 6
“Based on pilot study sample sizes [19], the research team recruited 52 participants using a convenience sampling strategy.”
Method
Acupuncture for chronic nonspecific low back pain in middle-aged and older patients: A randomized controlled trial
Fei, X. U., Kai-qiong, J. I. A. O., Wang, L., & Zhang, F. (2024) · 世界针灸杂志：英文版 · doi:10.1016/j.wjam.2024.09.007 · Cited by 6
Fire Needling Therapy versus Usual Care for Parkinson’s Disease-Related Chronic Pain: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
Wang, M., Ren, Y.-S., Xiao, H., Liu, A., Ma, C., Li, Z., Wang, Z., Xia, Q., Dou, P., Li, B., et al. (2024) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s485481 · Cited by 6
“25,26 Therefore, a total of 60 participants were required in our study.”
Background
A multidimensional scale for evaluating food inflation’s impact on nutritional behavior
Durmaz, S. E., Keser, A., & Ergenç, C. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23553-y · Cited by 6
“The optimal sample size for a pilot study in the field of scale development is typically 30 [26].”
Green Purchase Behavior in Indonesia: Examining the Role of Knowledge, Trust and Marketing
Vironika, P., & Maulida, M. (2025) · Challenges · doi:10.3390/challe16030041 · Cited by 22
“This sample size aligns with established recommendations that 20–30 respondents are sufficient for detecting potential weaknesses in the instrument and for preliminary validation purposes [142,143].”
L2 writers’ critical AI literacy in AI-assisted academic writing: scale development and validation
Yao, G., & Fan, L. (2026) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2025-0218 · Cited by 6
“The revised item pool from Phase 2 is administered in a pilot study to a sample of L2 writers, speci ﬁ cally 80 undergraduate students at a university, all with prior experience using AI for academic writing as Johanson and Brooks (2010) suggest a smaller sample for initial item analysis.”
Utilization of Information and Communication Technology in Teaching and Learning of Chemistry at Senior High Schools in Ghana
Bayuo, J., Abukari, M. A., Bornaa, C. S., Samari, J. A., & Alagbela, A. A. (2022) · Contemporary Mathematics and Science Education · doi:10.30935/conmaths/12364 · Cited by 6
Kinematic mechanism of the rehabilitative effect of 4-channel NMES: post-hoc analysis of a prospective randomized controlled study
Lim, J., Lee, J. C., Jang, E. G., Choi, S. Y., Seo, K., Lee, S. Y., Park, D., Oh, B., Seo, H. G., & Ryu, J. S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40359-3 · Cited by 6
“Considering a dropout rate of 10%, the final sample size was determined to be a total of 26 participants 20 .”
Influences of destination image, place attachment and service expectation on ecotourism destination satisfaction: a case of Cambodian tourists visiting Mondulkiri
Saut, M., & Ly, Y. (2023) · Journal of Ecotourism · doi:10.1080/14724049.2023.2283395 · Cited by 8
“As suggested by Johanson and Brooks (2009), a pilot study was conducted with 30 respondents to ensure the questionnaire ’ s quality.”
Needs Analysis for Developing a Teaching Speaking Module for Chinese EFL Business English Undergraduates from the Teachers’ Perspective: Assessing the Validity and Reliability
Hu, K., & AlSaqqaf, A. (2023) · International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development · doi:10.6007/ijarped/v12-i4/19785 · Cited by 6
“At least 30 subjects are recommended by Johanson and Brooks (2010) as the threshold value for preliminary data collection or scale development in the pilot test.”
Background
Initial Construction of the Exercise Maintenance Motivation Scale: A Mixed-Method Study
Nam, T. T., Dadras, O., Le, C. N., Phu, D. H., Tin, P. T., An, T. D., Dat, N. T., Du, T. N., Hiền, N. T. T., Châu, T. T. T., et al. (2023) · Journal of Human Earth and Future · doi:10.28991/hef-2023-04-04-06 · Cited by 7
“Item discrimination indices were provided in the form of simple Pearson correlations [53].”
Method
Technology adoption among Indigenous tourism stakeholders: scale development and validation
Vinodan, A., & Meera, S. (2024) · Information Technology for Development · doi:10.1080/02681102.2024.2345374 · Cited by 6
“Before commencing the final study, a pre-test is conducted with 30 stakeholders from Periyar and Parambikulam tiger reserves (Johanson and Brooks 2010).”
Believing is seeing: Development and validation of the STRESS (Subjective Thoughts REgarding Stress Scale) for measuring stress beliefs
Kilby, C. J., Sherman, K. A., & Wuthrich, V. M. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111535 · Cited by 6
Ultrasound Calculation of Fat Volume for Liposuction: A Clinical Software Validation
Harutyunyan, R., Gilardino, M. S., Papanastasiou, V. W., Jeffries, S. D., & Hemmerling, T. M. (2023) · Aesthetic Surgery Journal · doi:10.1093/asj/sjad121 · Cited by 6
Comparing the stigma experiences and comfort with disclosure in Dutch and English populations of people living with dementia
Bhatt, J., Kohl, G., Scior, K., Charlesworth, G. M., Muller, M., & Dröes, R. (2023) · Dementia · doi:10.1177/14713012231188503 · Cited by 9
“Preliminary psychometric properties can be explored with a small sample size (Johanson & Brooks, 2010), however, larger scale studies are necessary to con ﬁ rm psychometric properties and country differences.”
Background
Representation Matters: Measuring Black Travelers’ Legitimacy Judgments of DMOs
Tucker, C. N., McGehee, N. G., Xiang, Z., & Bradford, B. S. (2023) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875231215079 · Cited by 6
“However, for initial scale development, where the goal is to gauge the comprehensiveness of the items, a sample of 100 to 200 respondents is recommended (Johanson & Brooks, 2010).”
Evaluating learning outcomes of Christian religious education learners: A comparison of constructive simulation and conventional method
Mugo, A. M., Nyaga, M. N., Ndwiga, Z. N., & Atitwa, E. B. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32632 · Cited by 6
“Johanson and Brooks [99] stated that 30 to 40 participants were sufficient for pilot studies comparing groups.”
Background
The Chinese Youth Attitudes toward Young Drug Users scale: An initial scale development and refinement
Chui, W. H., & Chan, H. C. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00372.x · Cited by 6
A nursing interface terminology: Evaluation of face validity
Juvé‐Udina, M. (2012) · Open Journal of Nursing · doi:10.4236/ojn.2012.23030 · Cited by 6
“In pilot testing, 30 to 50 participants are usually recommended or at least a greater number of participants than the number of questions included in the survey [29].”
Background
A preliminary study of safety management practices on Pan-Borneo highway construction sites in Kuching, Malaysia
Ikau, R., Rashid, A., Muhammad, W. M. N. W., & Wahi, N. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1349/1/012006 · Cited by 6
Electroacupuncture for postoperative pain after nasal endoscopic surgery: study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial
Li, S., Zhang, Q., Yin, X., Yue, H., Zhang, W., Lao, L., Zhang, Z., Wu, H., & Xu, S. (2020) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-020-4064-2 · Cited by 6
Development and initial validation of the Psychological Need Frustration Scale for Physical Activity
Chung, P., Zhong, T., Liu, J., Zhang, C., & Wong, M. Y. C. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.9210 · Cited by 6
Translation and psychometric properties of the Persian version of the position on nursing diagnosis scale
Ramezanian, T., Mohammadipour, F., Mohammadi, R., & Kordestani-Moghadam, P. (2021) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.782 · Cited by 6
“There are contradictory opinions about the size of the sample needed for factor analysis (Johanson & Brooks, 2010).”
Background
The prevalence and determinants of inappropriate sexual behaviour in people with acquired brain injury in nursing homes
Kohnen, R. F., Lavrijsen, J. C. M., Akkermans, R., Gerritsen, D. L., & Koopmans, R. T. C. M. (2021) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.14817 · Cited by 6
“A number of 30 representative participants from the population of interest have been suggested as a reasonable minimum recommendation for a study where the purpose is explorative analysis (Johanson & Brooks, 2010; Kohnen et al., 2020).”
Background
Developing and Validating a Survey of Korean Early Childhood English Teachers’ Knowledge
Kim, J. I. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n12p170 · Cited by 6
Teachers' Attitudes and Perceptions Toward Transition Services from School to Work for Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities in Saudi Arabia
Alnahdi, G. H. (2012) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 6
Cross sectional study to determine chloroquine resistance among Plasmodium falciparum clinical isolates from Khartoum, Sudan
Mohammed, W. S. A., Yasin, K., Mahgoub, N. S., & Hamid, M. M. A. (2018) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.13273.1 · Cited by 6
We are “not” too (young/old) to collaborate: Prominent Key Barriers to Intergenerational Innovation
Nurhas, I., Aditya, B. R., Geisler, S., Ojala, A., & Pawlowski, J. Μ. (2019) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä) · Cited by 6
Efficacy of moxibustion for pre- or stage I hypertension: study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial
Shin, K.-M., Park, J., Liu, Y., Jung, H., Jung, S., Lee, M., Kang, K., Yook, T. H., & Choi, S. (2012) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-188 · Cited by 6
“Allowing for a 20% dropout rate, each group will include 15 participants, which is the minimum sample size necessary to evaluate the effect of moxibustion [13,14].”
Background
Cruise tourists’ perceptions of destination: Exploring push and pull motivational factors in the decision to take a cruise vacation
Whyte, L. J. (2016) · The University of Queensland · doi:10.14264/uql.2016.1160 · Cited by 6
A Feasibility and Pilot Randomised Dismantling Trial of the Efficacy of Self-As-Context During Acceptance and Commitment Therapy.
Stockton, D., Kellett, S., Wilkinson, N., Hague, J., Bliss, P., Heaver, M., & Devine, A. (2021) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-021-00118-6 · Cited by 5
Exploring The Drivers of Entrepreneurial Intentions Among Farmers in Tanzania's Agricultural Sector
Tambwe, M. A., & Mapunda, M. A. (2024) · African Journal Of Applied Research · doi:10.26437/ajar.v10i1.707 · Cited by 5
“The questionnaire was piloted with 16 small-scale orange farmers in Michungwani ward, Handeni District, Tanga region, aligning with recommendations from scholars (Hill, 1998; van Belle, 2002; Johanson & Brooks, 2010) for pilot sample sizes of 10 – 30.”
Method
Autobiographical Memory Functions of Tattoo Event Memories
Klug, K., Camia, C., & Rohrmann, S. (2024) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2024.2409762 · Cited by 5
“, we applied convenience sampling considered the most useful for pilot testing (Hertzog, 2008; Johanson & Brooks, 2010; Julious, 2005; Langdridge & Hagger-Johnson, 2013).”
Menstruation myths scale: A scale development study
Erci̇yas, Ş. K., Ekrem, E. C., & Çetin, Ş. (2025) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1002/ijgo.70122 · Cited by 5
“In addition, items that were not collected under any factor in the rotated component matrix or that overlapped in two different factors (items 3, 8, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 27, 29, 30, 32, and 33) were removed from the scale as the first step.”
Vaccine hesitancy among Dutch parents of newborn children and its associated characteristics, values and uptake of vaccines
Bussink-Voorend, D., Hulscher, M., Akkermans, R., Krom, A., & Hautvast, J. L. A. (2025) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.127244 · Cited by 5
Driving sustainable transportation: analyzing consumer behavior toward used electric vehicles
Zhang, Y., Wisedsind, N., & Thavorn, J. (2025) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100978 · Cited by 6
AI-powered Personalization for Learning and Human-Robot Interaction: A Case Study with Pre-Service Teachers from Indonesia
Yakin, A. M. A., Muthmainnah, M., Cardoso, L., Matari, A. S. A., & Obaid, A. J. (2025) · Southeastern Philippines Journal of Research and Development · doi:10.53899/spjrd.v30i2.1092 · Cited by 5
Exploring the Impact of Streamer Competencies and Situational Factors on Consumers’ Purchase Intention in Live Commerce: A Stimulus–Organism–Response Perspective
Cai, X., & Suh, W. (2025) · Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research · doi:10.3390/jtaer20040296 · Cited by 5
Seeing the Threat: A Study on Climate Change Risk Perceptions and Pro‐Environmental Behaviour
Yousef, H., Yousri, D. M., & El-Bassiouny, N. M. (2025) · Sustainable Development · doi:10.1002/sd.70425 · Cited by 5
Determinants of Farmers' Entrepreneurial Intention in Tanzanian Agricultural Sector: : A Structural Modeling Approach
Tambwe, M. A., Chachage, B., & Mbise, E. R. (2020) · Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.14738/assrj.710.9256 · Cited by 5
Engagement hacia un producto vs. hacia una marca: una escala para el contexto mexicano
Martínez, J. V., & Ornelas, S. (2020) · Contaduría y Administración · doi:10.22201/fca.24488410e.2021.1898 · Cited by 6
“El tamaño de muestra es consistente con las recomendaciones para desarrollo inicial de escalas (Johanson & Brooks, 2010).”
Background
The Relationship between Entrepreneurial Competencies and Entrepreneurial Success Among Homestay Entrepreneurs in Malaysia
Yong, K., Zainal, N. T. A., & Chekima, B. (2021) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v11-i6/10088 · Cited by 6
Can Glamping be a Vacation to Help Dink Couples Relax and Maintain Close Relationships?
Liu, Y., & Draper, J. (2024) · Tourism Review International · doi:10.3727/194344224x17065495994350 · Cited by 5
Public Accountability and Bureaucratic Discretion: Why do Internal Auditors Stretch the Boundaries of Their Role?
Krup, D. N., & Mizrahi, S. (2024) · The American Review of Public Administration · doi:10.1177/02750740241265893 · Cited by 8
“Based on Johanson and Brooks (2010), we maintain that this number is suf ﬁ cient, considering the estimated size of the IA population in Israel.”
Perceived autonomy support in individuals with Parkinson’s disease requiring emergency care: a cross-sectional pilot study
Florijn, B. W., van Zwet, E. W., Kaptein, A. A., & van der Plas, A. A. (2024) · Neurological Research and Practice · doi:10.1186/s42466-024-00340-5 · Cited by 5
“We used a minimum sample requirement of 30 given the reasonable minimum recommendation for a pilot study in survey research by Johanson and Brooks [13].”
Method
Impact of digital device utilization on public health surveillance to enhance city resilience during the public health emergency response: A case study of SARS-CoV-2 response in Thailand (2020–2023)
Chutarong, W., Thammalikhit, R., Kraiklang, R., Sawangwong, A., Saechang, O., Guo, Y., & Zhang, W. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241304070 · Cited by 5
The Development of Laboratory Safety Questionnaire for Middle School Science Teachers
KOÇ, S., & Çavaş, B. (2017) · Science education international · doi:10.33828/sei.v28.i3.6 · Cited by 5
Influence of attitudinal dimensions on children's interest in preserving extensive grasslands
Špur, N., Škornik, S., & Šorgo, A. (2019) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.09.011 · Cited by 5
EXPLORING METACOGNITIVE REGULATION AND STUDENTS’ INTERACTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING: AN ANALYSIS OF NEEDS TO ENHANCE STUDENTS’ MASTERY
Bakar, M. A. A., & Ismail, N. B. (2020) · Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews · doi:10.18510/hssr.2020.82e07 · Cited by 7
The Influence of Distributed Leadership on Professional Learning Community among Secondary School Leaders in The State of Johore/ Pengaruh Kepimpinan Distributif Terhadap Komuniti Pembelajaran Profesional Dalam Kalangan Pemimpin Sekolah Menengah Di Negeri Johor
Abdullah, S. S. Z. S. (2020) · Sains Humanika · doi:10.11113/sh.v12n2-2.1780 · Cited by 11
“Manakala Johanson & Brooks (2010) pula mencadangkan, bilangan minimum adalah seramai 30 orang bagi kajian rintis yang mana tujuannya adalah untuk kajian awal atau pembangunan skala.”
Background
A retrospective study of Yiqi-Huoxue Decoction on blood pressure in patients with acute ischemic stroke
Jiang, C. Q., Wang, T., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., & Fang, B. (2020) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000023187 · Cited by 5
“its effects with a total sample size of 72 patients, including assumption of 20% dropout rate,([39]) each group 36 patients.”
Background
Attitudes of the Indian Middle Class: A Theory of Planned Behavior Approach
Barat, S. (2021) · Athens Journal of Business & Economics · doi:10.30958/ajbe.8-1-2 · Cited by 5
Evaluación del uso del aprendizaje móvil en la educación STEM: Una experiencia de estudiantes universitarios en tiempos de pandemia
Arredondo, L. A. L. (2022) · Revista de Investigación en Educación · doi:10.35869/reined.v20i2.4224 · Cited by 5
Factors influencing plasma donation behavior of COVID‐19 recovered patients in Bangladesh: A pilot study
Salma, N., Hossain, M. M., Yasmin, S., Alam, M. K., Rimon, A. R., Faruque, J., & Ali, M. (2022) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.974 · Cited by 5
A Voice App Design for Heart Failure Self-management: Proof-of-Concept Implementation Study
Barbaric, A., Munteanu, C., Ross, H. J., & Cafazzo, J. A. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/40021 · Cited by 5
“A total of 20 participants were recruited for the study based on similar guidance provided for pilot studies [25].”
Method
Jordanian nursing students’ engagement and satisfaction with e-learning during COVID-19 pandemic
Alosta, M. R., Khalaf, I. A., & Othman, E. H. (2023) · International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship · doi:10.1515/ijnes-2022-0053 · Cited by 5
Examining the Knowledge and Training of Secondary School Physical Educators Providing Strength and Conditioning Programming
Kern, B. D., Bellar, D. M., & Wilson, W. J. (2023) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.2022-0291 · Cited by 7
Workplace ostracism as an antecedent to workplace envy: the mediating roles of metacognitive resources and dimensions of social perception
Shady, A., Bouchra, N., & Darrag, M. (2023) · Evidence-based HRM a Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship · doi:10.1108/ebhrm-08-2022-0194 · Cited by 5
A Short Guide on How to Carry Out Validation of Scales Measuring Health Outcomes
Mesquita, E. M. (2023) · Acta Médica Portuguesa · doi:10.20344/amp.20041 · Cited by 6
EDUCATING YOUTH ON PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY - PROJECT ENGAGEMENT AND RECOGNITION OF THE GREEN DEAL
GAJOVIĆ, A., Bjelica, D., Pavlović, D., & Vukmirović, D. (2023) · Applied Ecology and Environmental Research · doi:10.15666/aeer/2104_29692989 · Cited by 5
“In contrast, Johanson and Brooks (2009) argue that a sample size between 10 to 15 is sufficient for a pilot study.”
Objective Structured Clinical Examination Perception Scale ( OSCEPS ) for Health Sciences Students: A Psychometric Evaluation Study
Şengül, T., Semerci, R., Güney, S., & Çataldaş, S. K. (2024) · Nursing and Health Sciences · doi:10.1111/nhs.13188 · Cited by 5
Developing a scale measuring perceived knowledge and skills dimensions for mental health promotion: a pilot test using a convenience sample
Lang, G., Stengård, E., & Wynne, R. F. (2016) · The Journal of Mental Health Training Education and Practice · doi:10.1108/jmhtep-02-2015-0005 · Cited by 5
Blood and Violence
Ashbarry, L., Geelan, B., de Salas, K., & Lewis, I. J. (2016) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/2967934.2968111 · Cited by 6
“e conducting further research), thus 30 participants was selected for this study [21].”
Background
TECHNOPRENEURSHIP INTENTIONS IN FACULTY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Mursityo, Y. T., Astuti, E. S., & Suharsono, E. G. (2017) · Jurnal Aplikasi Manajemen · doi:10.21776/ub.jam.2017.015.02.16 · Cited by 5
“The test data will use 30 and field data is 187 (Johanson and Brooks, 2010).”
Method
ANALISIS MODEL RASCH PADA INSTRUMEN KEBERTERIMAAN MARKA OPTIK PENANDA JARAK AMAN KENDARAAN
Napitupulu, D. B. (2018) · Jurnal Penelitian Transportasi Darat · doi:10.25104/jptd.v19i1.604 · Cited by 5
A cognitive remediation training for young adults with psychotic disorders to support their participation in education — study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial
Otto, L., Hofstra, J., Mullen, M. G., Malenczak, D., Boonstra, N., van der Meer, L., Veling, W., Boerhout, C., van Rijsbergen, G. D., de Vries, J., et al. (2020) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-020-00579-0 · Cited by 5
Adherence to Universal Precautions and Associated Factors among Nurses Caring For Critically Ill Patients in Dar es Salaam Tanzania
Wibonela, S., Mbekenga, C. K., Ramadhani, F. B., Mwanga, A. H., & Pallangyo, P. (2020) · Saudi Journal of Nursing and Health Care · doi:10.36348/sjnhc.2020.v03i03.003 · Cited by 5
Pilot study for the evaluation and adaptation of a Four Item-Acne-Scar Risk Assessment Tool (4-ASRAT): a resource to estimate the risk of acne-induced scars
Porter, J. E., Camacho, M., Viteri, M. I., Aguilar, K. G., Belhadi, D., Bettoli, V., Buestán, A. D. R., Dréno, B., Endara, P., Layton, A., et al. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.23737.1 · Cited by 5
Youth Employment Creation as an Inclusive Solution for Sustainable Development: Lessons from the ‘Double You Digital Skills Initiative’ in Nigeria
Tunji-Olayeni, P. F., Osabuohien, E. S. C., Yabkwa, I., & Onabote, A. A. (2021) · IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · doi:10.1088/1755-1315/665/1/012019 · Cited by 5
“Moreover, [29] suggested that 30 participants were sufficient for pilot research, where the aim is to provide baseline information.”
Background
Fostering Knowledge Sharing Behavior Among Pakistani Engineering Students: Role of Individual and Classroom Related Factors
Safdar, M., Batool, S. H., & Mahmood, K. (2021) · Libri · doi:10.1515/libri-2020-0153 · Cited by 5
The preliminary validity and reliability of the Assessment of Barriers to Learning in Education – Autism
Howell, M., Bailey, T., Bradshaw, J., & Langdon, P. E. (2021) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2021.104025 · Cited by 5
PARTICIPATION RESTRICTION IN CANCER SURVIVORS:A CROSS-CULTURAL ADAPTATION AND PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF OCCUPATIONAL GAP QUESTIONNAIRE
Sapihis, M., Loh, S. Y., Roslani, A. C., & Chinna, K. (2015) · Jurnal Teknologi · doi:10.11113/jt.v77.7005 · Cited by 5
“participants as suggested by [23], a minimum of 30 representative of participation for initial scale development survey.”
Background
Construct Validity and Reliability of Manufacturing Industry: A Rasch Measurement Model Approaches for Pilot Study
Sharif, M. S., Hanapi, Z., Nashir, I. M., Kob, C. G. C., & Abdullah, A. S. (2019) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v9-i3/5733 · Cited by 5
“Meanwhile, Johanson and Brooks (2010) suggested that the minimum number of respondents for the pilot study is 30 people with the aim of being preliminary research or a scale development.”
Background
The development and validation instrument for the cognitive medical errors: structural equation modeling approach
Alolayyan, M. N., Alyahya, M. S. I., Hijazi, H. H. A., & Ajayneh, F. J. (2022) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-021-01285-6 · Cited by 5
Development and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Golf Participation Questionnaire for Older Adults (GPQOA)
Stenner, B. J., Buckley, J. D., & Mosewich, A. D. (2018) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2018.1450920 · Cited by 5
“A sample size of 24–40 was targeted for pilot testing of the questionnaire based on recommendations for pilot studies of questionnaire development (Hertzog, 2008; Johanson & Brooks, 2010; Lancaster, Dodd, & Williamson, 2004).”
Method
Content Analysis of Social Tags on Intersectionality for Works on Asian Women: An Exploratory Study of LibraryThing
Kathuria, S. (2011) · Cited by 5
Evaluation of a Curriculum-Based Nutrition Education Intervention Protocol in Elementary Schools: Nonrandomized Feasibility Study
Brown, J. M., Rita, N., Franco‐Arellano, B., LeSage, A., & Arcand, J. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/69242 · Cited by 5
“For this type of feasibility study, 12 to 30 participants per group is suggested by other researchers [34,35].”
Assessing Internet Quality Across Public Health Centers in Indonesia: Cross-Sectional Evaluation Study
Aisyah, D. N., Setiawan, A. H., Lokopessy, A. F., Mayadewi, C. A., Endryantoro, M. T. A., Wibowo, V., Disviana, S., Laksana, I., Aviandito, M., Kozlakidis, Z., et al. (2025) · JMIR Medical Informatics · doi:10.2196/65940 · Cited by 4
“This sample size aligns with established methodological guidance, which recommends 10 ‐ 30 participants for pilot testing to identify potential issues with instrument design and administration [22,23].”
Environmental Concern and Digital Engagement as Drivers of Circular Product Buying Intention in Malaysia: an Integrated S-O-R, TPB, and DOI Perspective
Kokash, H. A., Ahsan, M. N., Hafeez, M. H., Khattak, A. N., Ahmed, S., & Alam, S. S. (2025) · Circular Economy and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43615-025-00693-2 · Cited by 6
“This pilot size falls within the range recommended by Van Teijlingen & Hundley [71 ] and Johanson & Brooks [72], who suggest that 30 to 100 participants are adequate for instrument testing in social sciences.”
Exploring burnout, professional identity, and psychological capital in Chinese secondary school teachers: a mixed-methods study with Critical Incident Technique
Liu, M. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-06001-5 · Cited by 5
“This sample size is considered adequate for pilot testing questionnaires and identifying potential issues with clarity and comprehension (e.g., Johanson and Brooks, 2010).”
Trust transfer in digital healthcare: The role of self-service systems in reducing patient treatment barriers
Zhang, L., Hussain, W. M. H. W., & Ali, S. H. M. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251396560 · Cited by 4
“117 The pilot test con ﬁ rmed adequate reliability (all Cronbach ’ s α > 0.70) and comprehensibility of all measurement items.”
Influential
Public Perceptions of Algorithmic Bias and Fairness in Cloud-Based Decision Systems
Alhosban, A., Gaire, R., & Al-Ababneh, H. A. (2025) · Standards · doi:10.3390/standards6010002 · Cited by 4
“Although a sample size of 30 is modest, it aligns with methodological guidance for exploratory descriptive and pilot studies aiming to identify general trends rather than estimate population parameters [35–37].”
Combining Theory and Research to Validate a Social Norms Framework Addressing Female Genital Mutilation
Sood, S., & Ramaiya, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.747823 · Cited by 4
Shifting from “What’s Wrong” to “What’s Strong”: Developing a Trauma-Informed Assessment of Student Character Strength Usage
Trudel, S. M., Bray, M. A., McCoach, D. B., Kaufman, J. C., McGrath, R. E., Brunzell, T., & Winter, E. L. (2025) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-025-00542-x · Cited by 4
“Johanson and Brooks (2010) reported that for a pilot or preliminary study, the sample size for initial instrument development is at minimum 30 representative participants from the population of interest to produce a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.80.”
Influential

Authors: Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P.
Affiliations: Ohio University (US)
Corresponding author: Johanson, George A.
ORCID: Johanson, George A.
Brooks, Gordon P.
Venue: Educational and Psychological Measurement
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-12-18
Volume: 70
Issue: 3
Pages: 394-400
ISSN: 0013-1644 (ISSN-L)
1552-3888
DOI: 10.1177/0013164409355692
OpenAlex: W1984294110
Cited by: 1,012
References: 19
Citations by year: 2026: 134 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 89 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 9.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Educational and Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Health Education and Validation
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Keywords: pilot study, sample size determination, scale development, instrument development, item difficulty, item discrimination, internal consistency, response rate, parameter estimation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Initial Scale Development: Sample Size for Pilot Studies

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks