The DOI matches its Crossref record; 48 of the 49 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 26 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language
Open accessAbstract
The disproportionate identification of learning disabilities among certain sociodemographic subgroups, typically groups that are already disadvantaged, is perceived as a persistent problem within the education system. The academic and social experiences of students who are misidentified with a learning disability may be severely restricted, whereas students with a learning disability who are never identified are less likely to receive the accommodations and modifications necessary to learn at their maximum potential. The authors use the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 to describe national patterns in learning disability identification. Results indicate that sociodemographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability. Although some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities), differences in socioeconomic status entirely account for African American and Hispanic disproportionality. The discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in the investigation of disproportionality.
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In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicate that socio-demographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“differences in SES entirely account for African-American and Hispanic disproportionality.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our findings confirm the disproportionate representation of language minorities, at least for those who have ever been in ESL or who report a lack of English proficiency in the 10th grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our results suggest that the overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities is entirely explained by their lower average socioeconomic status (as a group).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for other covariates of SES and academic and language-immigration history, the odds of identification for a African-American student are significantly lower (28%) than a white student of comparable background (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“being a non-native English speaker is not significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability once socio-demographic characteristics are considered (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for the recent immigrant's lesser likelihood of identification, lack of current English proficiency becomes a significant predictor, increasing the odds of identification by 11% for every one-unit increase on the scale of limited proficiency.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to students who started in U.S. schools by kindergarten, the odds of identification are 96% less for students who started in U.S. schools between grades 6 and 10, net of all controls.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grade retention and being older than peers in the 10th grade are significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“non-native English speakers comprise 12% of the analytic sample but 15% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, net of all controls, significant positive predictors of identification include having ever been in ESL or currently lacking in English proficiency, while having a parent who is not a native English speaker or having started in U.S. schools anytime after the early elementary grades persist as significant negative predictors.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Net of all controls, the odds of a student's identification increase by 6% with each additional sibling, and decrease by 11% for every one-unit increase in cognitive resources present in the household (Model 6).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“although SES is significantly associated with identification with a learning disability, it is unclear whether this is due to environmental or prenatal factors, both of which affect childhood development (Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000), or the way that schools treat students depending on their socioeconomic background.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to highest parental education level, which is rendered insignificant once measures of covariates of SES and academic history are held constant, family income is consistently negatively associated with identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all of the significant race/ethnicity effects are explained once we account for the systematic differences in SES between these groups by including controls for highest parental education level and family income (Model 2). The one exception is that the odds of being identified for an Asian student are 54% lower than for a white of comparable SES.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds are also 1.56 times greater for Native Americans and 1.42 times greater for students of any other race (Model 1); the former effect is not significant and the latter is only marginally so”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Males are disproportionately identified, representing 50% of our analytic sample but 66% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification with a learning disability are 1.43 times greater for African-Americans and 1.49 times greater for Hispanics compared to whites (the reference category), controlling for gender (Model 1).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 6, having been in ESL remains a significant positive predictor and having a non-native-English-speaking parent remains a significant negative predictor of identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“identification with a learning disability is associated with a student's sex, socio-demographic (non-cognitive) characteristics, and academic history”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Males
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are intentionally parsimonious in our inclusion of measures of academic experiences and outcomes, because these may be the result rather than the cause of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Samson and Lesaux (2009) used the nationally representative dataset ECLS-K to determine that language minority students are identified later and in higher proportions than their native-English-speaking peers, being underrepresented in special education in kindergarten and first grade, but overrepresented by the 3rd grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Language Minorities
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Samson and Lesaux 2009 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“Bradley et al. (2007) describe the three tiers of RTI as 1) the receipt of research-based instruction by all students, 2) observation of all students for response to instruction, and 3) “individualized and intensive interventions and services” for those students who need it.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley et al. 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“multivariate, multilevel modeling of national data that includes student-level measures of identification, SES, other socio-demographic characteristics, and academic history is essential.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the proportion of schools that are high-minority and high-poverty within the analytic sample and the sample of excluded schools are similar, we cannot claim with confidence that our analytic sample is nationally representative.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“due to data constraints, we cannot thoroughly illuminate the mechanisms whereby this may occur.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The persistent significant associations between identification and these characteristics suggest that identification with a learning disability is not socially neutral, but rather related to structural features of the education system and students' academic histories.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the actual learning disability diagnosis may have occurred before the 10th grade, we were careful to select time invariant or retrospective measures that were not likely to be a result of having been identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data from ELS, however, were collected prior to the implementation of RTI; consequently, our findings must be interpreted separately from the RTI approach to identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Poor and inappropriate diagnostic procedures and/or discrimination may play a role in the disproportionate identification of certain students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the use of a dataset like ELS is a strength of this study – large and nationally representative of students receiving both special and regular education”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“RTI is thought to better account for “interpersonal and institutional factors” affecting the student and to improve practices on a school-wide basis (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
- Not matchedcites Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results would be bolstered by a more nuanced measure of the type of learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research confirms that resources in the home during early childhood positively contribute to the development of both cognitive and learning ability (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Despite the issuance of an IDEA regulatory guide in 2006, the process of RTI is still somewhat ambiguous and its effect has not been thoroughly researched (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“MacMillan and Reschly (1998) point out that African-Americans are disproportionately represented in intervention programs (e.g., Head Start, Chapter 1, Follow Through), just as they are overrepresented in special education programs.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites MacMillan and Reschly 1998 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two distinct basic measures of SES – highest parental education level and family income – were used rather than a composite measure since each component may contribute differentially to identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bivariate analyses, in contrast to multivariate analyses, depend on the implicit assumption that the average backgrounds of different groups of people are similar and unrelated to the outcome of interest.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Research focusing solely on bivariate analyses inadvertently neglects a myriad of possible explanatory factors, and ultimately may result in misguided directions for future research and policy-making.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were able to determine that 351 of the schools indicated the IEP status of all of the students sampled from their school, 196 schools reported on some of the students sampled, and 204 schools reported on none of the students sampled.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean and mode imputation was used to account for missing values on all independent variables except for race and gender; imputation flags were included in all multivariate models.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of a potential correlation between grade retention and identification with a learning disability, and the greater likelihood of low SES students to be held back, we include four dummies indicating whether the student repeated one or more grades during early elementary (K-2), late elementary (3-5), middle/high school (6-10).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
“We utilize the variable indicating whether the student is identified with a learning disability by their school in the 10th grade1. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is enacted when students are identified as eligible for special education services, and the school's designation indicates specifically whether the student has an IEP for a Specific Learning Disability.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency.
“exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan 2005)”
The paper relies on this without support.
No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
“no research exists indicating that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability.
“federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability”
The paper relies on this without support.
A student's report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling.
“a student report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the great variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling”
The paper relies on this without support.
More recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during elementary years.
“more recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during the elementary years”
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
Widiger, T. A. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10518-009 · Cited by 19,766
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
(2000) · doi:10.17226/9824 · Cited by 4,484 · cited 3×
“…Medicine of the National Academies concludes that early experiences influence brain development, that culture influences early development through child-rearing beliefs and practices, and that the brain can actually be harmed by poor nutrition, health, or chronic stress (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).”
BackgroundEducation and Treatment of Children
Hickman, J. A., Wheatley, J. K., & Sheridan, K. D. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese0816 · Cited by 3,235
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
Carey, W. B. (2001) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-200104000-00011 · Cited by 2,678
Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges
Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., Cuadrado, J., & Chung, C.-G. (2008) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290807400301 · Cited by 664 · cited 9×
“…has tended to focus on the disproportional identification of Black students with mental retardation and emotional disturbance (OSEP, 2007; Skiba et al., 2008), there is evidence to suggest that the gap between Black and White students in rates of identification with a learning disability…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGalobardes, B., Smith, G. D., & Lynch, J. W. (2006) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.06.053 · Cited by 643 · cited 1×
“…should be proportionately distributed throughout the population, but the fact is that other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch, 2006; Karlamangla et al., 2005), arthritis, and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, & Crimmins, 2001), are disproportionately…”
BackgroundTracking and High School English Learners: Limiting Opportunity to Learn
Callahan, R. M. (2005) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312042002305 · Cited by 511 · cited 2×
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career and that exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan, 2005), it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
BackgroundSelf-citationArtiles, A. J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J. J., & Higareda, I. (2005) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290507100305 · Cited by 496 · cited 3×
“Language minorities are also affected by the lack of proper assessment in their native language (Artiles et al., 2005; Klingner & Harry, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodDoes childhood health affect chronic morbidity in later life?
Blackwell, D. L., Hayward, M. D., & Crimmins, E. M. (2001) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00230-6 · Cited by 424
Flagged first, then by citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 7
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- Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center., 2009, The Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center
- Education Resources Information Center, 2000, Research Connections in Special Education, 7
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- Office of Special Education Programs., History-Twenty-five years of progress in educating children with disabilities through IDEA
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Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 242
Sahakyan, N., & Poole, G. (2022) · Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) · doi:10.1080/10824669.2022.2123328 · Cited by 17
Krammer, M., Gasteiger‐Klicpera, B., Holzinger, A., & Wohlhart, D. (2019) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2019.1573938 · Cited by 10
“…although authors have highlighted the strong relationship between SEN-labeling of learning disabilities and the socio-economic background of these children who receive this label (Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011), most research does not consider this type of composition effects (Ruijs 2017).”
BackgroundConnors, K. H., Guertin, E. L., Nichol, M., Bosson-Heenan, J. M., Gruen, J. R., & Frijters, J. C. (2025) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194241312189 · Cited by 13
“The high percentage of learning disability may also be related to the socioeconomic makeup of the sample, as low SES is known to be associated with higher likelihood of learning disability identification (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
Essentializing Merit: Disability and Exclusion in Elite Private School Admissions
Diaz, E. B., & Rivera, L. A. (2025) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224251326096 · Cited by 9
“…class of origin can affect one’s likelihood of experiencing disability (or being labeled as disabled) over the life course due to class-based differences in environmental exposures, stress, access to healthcare, and other forms of structural inequalities (see Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011).”
Research trends in inclusive education for students with disabilities: a bibliometric analysis
Wider, W., Tanucan, J. C. M., Tee, M., Jiang, L., Udang, L. N., Fauzi, M. A., Hassan, V., & Muna, F. (2025) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2025.2495819 · Cited by 9
“Some studies have highlighted the Disability Critical Race Theory (Annamma, Ferri, and Connor 2018; Baglieri et al. 2011; Leonardo and Broderick 2011; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011).”
Firestone, A. R., & Cruz, R. A. (2022) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/00224871221121278 · Cited by 14
“Though eligibility criteria and processes remain the subject of debate amid equity concerns (e.g., Fish, 2019; Shifrer et al., 2011), a student can be legally found eligible for special education through a range of procedures, so long as the decision is agreed upon by “a group of qualified…”
BackgroundShifrer, D. (2023) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584231186612 · Cited by 10
“…studies, with adjustments for differences in achievement, the likelihood of being classified with a learning disability is significantly lower for Black youth (Hibel et al., 2010; Shifrer, 2018; Shifrer et al., 2011) and for youth whose native language is not English (Maxwell & Shah, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationResponse to Intervention and Specific Learning Disability Identification: Evidence From Tennessee
Gilmour, A. F., Harper, J., Lloyd, B. P., & Camp, A. V. (2023) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194231215013 · Cited by 10
“…resulted in the over-and under-identification of Black students (Morgan et al., 2016; Sullivan & Bal, 2013; U.S. Department of Education, 2010), students classified as English learners (ELs; Klingner & Edwards, 2006), and students who were economically disad-vantaged (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBrandenburg, J., Fischbach, A., Labuhn, A. S., Rietz, C. S., Schmid, J., & Hasselhorn, M. (2016) · Pedocs (German Institute for International Educational Research) · doi:10.25656/01:12029 · Cited by 9
Castro‐Villarreal, F., & Nichols, S. L. (2016) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811611801404 · Cited by 9
Social Characteristics as Predictors of ADHD Labeling across the Life Course
Thompson, M., Wilkinson, L., & Woo, H. (2020) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869320916535 · Cited by 9
Mohamed, N. (2023) · Journal of Underrepresented & Minority Progress · doi:10.32674/jump.v7i1.5010 · Cited by 9
Learning Disabilities and Inequality
Shifrer, D. (2013) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12055 · Cited by 8
Self-citationHajovsky, D. B., & Chesnut, S. R. (2022) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2022.05.001 · Cited by 8
“…children from families of lower socioeconomic status (SES) tend to show disproportionate representation in special education, which can compound issues for children of color who are already marginalized in educational contexts (Morgan et al., 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan & Bal, 2013).”
BackgroundPrevalence of Dyslexia among School Children in Western Rajasthan, Jaipur
Singh Rajinder, P., Nijhawan, A., Nijhawan, M., Preetkamal, P., Manju, B., Rishika, A., & Yadav Kuldeep, S. (2017) · IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences · doi:10.9790/0853-1605125962 · Cited by 8
Direct and Spillover Effects of Limiting Minority Student Access to Special Education
Ballis, B., & Heath, K. (2021) · Brown Digital Repository · doi:10.26300/m2m5-0t83 · Cited by 8
Fish, R. E. (2019) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/n6fgp · Cited by 8
Invisible disabilities and college academic success: New evidence from a mediation analysis
Myers, A., Halpern-Manners, A., & McLeod, J. D. (2024) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103058 · Cited by 7
Kirksey, J. J. (2024) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737241288838 · Cited by 21
“…there was no information available related to students’ immigrant-origin status, but is perhaps worth mentioning that each of these sub-groups of students host a disproportionate number of immigrant-origin students (Capps et al., 2018; Free et al., 2014; Passel & Cohen, 2018; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
Twice-Exceptionality: Maximizing Academic & Psychosocial Success in Youth
Lewis, L. R. (2021) · Journal of Health Service Psychology · doi:10.1007/s42843-021-00046-1 · Cited by 7
Gebhardt, M., Krammer, M., Schwab, S., et al. (2013) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.13140/2.1.1152.5760 · Cited by 7
Race/ethnicity and criminal behavior: Neurohormonal influences
Ellis, L. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.013 · Cited by 8
A Critical Appraisal of the Evidence on Racial Disproportionality in Special Education
Fish, R. E., Shores, K., & Souto-Maior, J. M. (2025) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/00144029251350094 · Cited by 6
Collegiate Purpose Development at the Intersections of Disability and Social Class Habitus
Vaccaro, A., Kimball, E. W., Newman, B. M., Moore, A. M., & Troiano, P. F. (2019) · Review of higher education/The review of higher education · doi:10.1353/rhe.2019.0100 · Cited by 7
Kashikar, L., Soemers, L., Lüke, T., & Grosche, M. (2024) · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12664 · Cited by 9
Socioeconomic disparities in special education provision
Halvorsen, O. K., Biele, G., Zachrisson, H. D., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2025.2478336 · Cited by 5
“Kincaid and Sullivan (2017) also find that special education provision has a significant and strong association with parental education and no association with parental income, while other studies find the opposite (Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011; Sullivan and Bal 2013).”
Xu, C., Li, Y., Yu, H., Li, Q., Liang, Y., Zhou, K., Li, Q., Yu, X., Zeng, X., Qu, Y., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0333850 · Cited by 7
“This aligns with findings from other studies [34,35].”
Margolis, A. E., Greenwood, P. B., Dranovsky, A., & Rauh, V. (2023) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12354 · Cited by 5
Shell, E. M. (2020) · Teaching and Supervision in Counseling · doi:10.7290/tsc020108 · Cited by 5
“Furthermore, the disproportionate identification and placement in special education services reproduces historical inequities in public education (Reid & Knight, 2006, Shifrer et al., 2010).”
BackgroundKeller‐Bell, Y. (2021) · Advances in linguistics and communication studies · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7134-7.ch001 · Cited by 5
Kersey, J., Garcia, P., Evans, E., Ahonle, Z. J., Jethani, P., Arango‐Lasprilla, J. C., Kumar, D., Lequerica, A. H., Valdés, G. M. M., Salinas, P., et al. (2025) · Archives of Rehabilitation Research and Clinical Translation · doi:10.1016/j.arrct.2025.100431 · Cited by 6
Differences in specific learning disability identification with the Woodcock-Johnson IV.
Izumi, J. T., Burns, M. K., & Frisby, C. L. (2019) · School Psychology · doi:10.1037/spq0000336 · Cited by 5
Stokowski, S. E. (2013) · Cited by 4
Implementation of Concussion Management Policies in High Schools: The Critical Role of School Nurses
Hess, C. W., Howland, J., Hackman, H., Campbell, J. K., Vannoy, S. D., & Hayden, L. A. (2023) · The Journal of School Nursing · doi:10.1177/10598405231160249 · Cited by 4
“…disparities in implementation have been observed previously in other school-based policies at the state, district, school, and even student levels (Shifrer et al., 2011; Skiba et al., 2014; Skiba et al., 2011; Skiba et al., 2005; Sullivan & Bal, 2013; Sullivan et al., 2013) further prompting…”
Lozano, C. S., Wüthrich, S., Wicki, M., & Brandenberg, K. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-023-01173-9 · Cited by 4
“…B. geringer sozioöko-nomischer Status, schwächere Schulleistungen) kontrolliert wird (z. B. Hibel et al. 2010; Kölm et al. 2020; Morgan et al. 2017; Shifrer et al. 2011), wobei Kontext-effekte, wie das Segregations-oder Schulleistungsniveau der Schulen, sowie das „Prestige“ einzelner…”
Jonak, J. (2014) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr.2013.40468 · Cited by 4
Τζουριάδου, Μ., Vouyoukas, C., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Φίλιου, Α. (2019) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2019.1593944 · Cited by 5
Zárate, M. E., & Gándara, P. C. (2019) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0161956x.2019.1598111 · Cited by 4
“There Isn’t a Racist Bone in My Body!”: A Case Study on Fostering Anti-Racism in School Counseling
Clemons, K. L., & Cokley, R. K. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95451-2_16 · Cited by 4
Willis, A. I. (2019) · Language Arts · doi:10.58680/la201930339 · Cited by 4
Lloyd, J. E. V., Zou, D., & Baumbusch, J. (2020) · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12488 · Cited by 4
Social Participation of Students with Special Educational Needs in Mainstream Education
(2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429264184 · Cited by 4
Incorporating disability within intersectional analysis: general challenges and French specificities
Bouchet, C. (2024) · French Politics · doi:10.1057/s41253-024-00270-3 · Cited by 4
“…extensively examines how ethnic or racial status affects placement into special schools, ranging from critiques of racialization (Blanchett 2010; Moore and Slee 2012; Harry and Klingner 2014) to socioeconomic status’s role as a confounding factor (Shifrer et al. 2011; Morgan et al. 2015).”
Training to Work with Interpreters in US School Psychology Graduate Programs
Hernandez, J. A., Norwalk, K. E., & Kim, E. K. (2022) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-022-00426-4 · Cited by 3
“…studies suggest that emergent bilinguals may be at risk for both over-and underrepresentation in special education, depending on grade level, geographic location, and disability category (Artiles et al., 2005; Gage & MacSuga-Gage, 2014; Sam-son & Lesaux, 2009; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan, 2011).”
Young, S. L., Cheng, K. K. W., Connell, N. O., et al. (2023) · Eye · doi:10.1038/s41433-023-02626-5 · Cited by 3
Baadte, C. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09562-2 · Cited by 5
Examining Learning Disabilities in Schools through an Intersectional and Equitable Lens
Leung, E. (2021) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.99572 · Cited by 3
Inclusive Technology-Enhanced Education
Daniela, L. (2022) · Educational communications and technology: issues and innovations · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-14775-3_1 · Cited by 4
Leslie, M. J., Umucu, E., Rumrill, P. D., McMahon, B. T., & Cormier, A. G. (2023) · Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/jvr-230003 · Cited by 3
“A higher prevalence of LD diagnoses is regularly observed in minority racial/ethnic populations, but several studies have demonstrated that this levels out when controlling for socioeconomic status (Coutinho, Oswald, & Best, 2002; Shifrer, 2018; Shifrer, Muller, & Callahan, 2011).”
Larose, S., Bureau, J. S., Cellard, C., Janosz, M., Beaulieu, C., Châteauvert, G. B., & Girard-Lamontagne, A. (2023) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-023-09756-5 · Cited by 9
“For instances, studies on the correlates of learning disabilities show greater prevalence of children with this diagnosis in disadvantaged environments and in certain racial and ethnic groups (e.g., American Indian; Alaskan Native) (see Shifrer et al., 2011 ).”
SYSTEMIC RACISM IN A BROKEN SPECIAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
(2021) · International Journal of Humanities and Social Development Research · doi:10.30546/2523-4331.2021.5.1.7 · Cited by 3
Hess, C. W., Campbell, J. K., Hackman, H., Hayden, L. A., & Howland, J. (2025) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2025.10112 · Cited by 3
Friedman, C. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.70116 · Cited by 3
Socioeconomic status and concussion recovery in young athletes
Kreitner, L., Crowley, E. M., Hentz, R. C., Wi, C., & Soma, D. B. (2025) · The Physician and Sportsmedicine · doi:10.1080/00913847.2025.2590420 · Cited by 2
“Children with lower SES are more likely to have learning disabilities [28], psychiatric disease [15], and migraines [29].”
Unequal Access: Disability and Socioeconomic Inequality in College Enrollment
Wells, R. S. (2026) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-025-09878-y · Cited by 2
“This technique for dealing with incorrect non-IEP reporting by schools is similar to past studies using NCES data (Shifrer et al., 2011; Shifrer, 2013b).”
Specific Learning Difficulties: Disparities in Identification
Daniel, J., Elliott, J., Tymms, P. B., & Strand, S. (2026) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194261427006 · Cited by 2
“…highlights significant dispropor-tionalities in special needs identification linked to students’ race or ethnicity, suggesting biases or systemic inequities in assessment and referral practices (e.g., Shifrer et al., 2011; Strand & Lindorff, 2018; Strand & Lindorff, 2021; Sullivan & Bal, 2013).”
Trauma-Informed Care to Prevent and Mitigate Effects of School Violence
Koslouski, J. B., Stark, K., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2023) · Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities · doi:10.1108/s0735-004x20230000033011 · Cited by 2
Mukuna, K. R., & Machingambi, M. (2023) · Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.59915/jes.2023.special.1.6 · Cited by 2
Chiropractic students’ perception of remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kuyinu, E., Sullivan, S. G. B., & Hayes, K. (2024) · Journal of Chiropractic Education · doi:10.7899/jce-22-20 · Cited by 2
Μιχαλοπούλου, Λ. Ε., & Vouyoukas, C. (2024) · Intercultural Education · doi:10.1080/14675986.2024.2348372 · Cited by 2
“…and special education identification has not been examined extensively in Roma student populations, SES has been demonstrated to impact the disproportionate representation of diverse students in special education placements (Grzymała-Moszczyńska et al. 2019; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011).”
BackgroundLone, A., Khan, A. S., AlWadani, F. A. S., & Almaqhawi, A. (2024) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina60101638 · Cited by 2
“Children from minority backgrounds may experience stigma and discrimination because of their disability, whereas children from low-income families may experience additional stressors related to financial constraints and limited access to healthcare services [24,25].”
BackgroundCultivating Educators' Critical Consciousness of Learning and Language Needs in Emergent Bilinguals
Broughton, A. J. (2021) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1692938 · Cited by 2
Rural Professionals' Perceptions of Minority Disparity within the School-to-Prison Pipeline
Christenson, J. L. (2012) · UST Research Online (University of St. Thomas - Minnesota) · Cited by 2
Bean, K. F., & Sidora‐Arcoleo, K. (2012) · Journal of Social Work in Disability & Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/1536710x.2012.730855 · Cited by 2
Bean, K. F. (2012) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 2
Experiences of Black Males With Dyslexia in the U.S. Education System
Shillingford, M. A., Butler, S. K., Mitchell, M. D., et al. (2021) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x211040041 · Cited by 2
“In fact, Shifrer et al. (2011) purported that Black males are more likely to be referred for special education services for reasons other than a learning disability and thus do not receive necessary services.”
BackgroundONT-SLD: A DOMAIN ONTOLOGY FOR LEARNING DISABILITY
Mohemad, R., Mamat, N. F. A., Noor, N. M. M., & Alhadi, A. C. (2020) · Indian Journal of Computer Science and Engineering · doi:10.21817/indjcse/2020/v11i5/201105187 · Cited by 2
“[21], the disproportionate identification of a learning disability is due to the subjective definitions of a learning disability and the inconsistent criteria defined in differentiating types of learning disabilities.”
Lombardi, A. R., Wu, R., Loken, E., Rifenbark, G. G., Challenger, C. D., Taconet, A. V., Langdon, S., & Shogren, K. A. (2022) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/df65g · Cited by 2
Marks, R. A., Mesite, L. M., Fox, A. B., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/c4r7q · Cited by 2
Disproportionality of African American students in special education
Martin, C. E. (2014) · doi:10.17077/etd.uxgi3rde · Cited by 2
“In another more recent study, a team of researchers found conflicting results when examining the relationship between poverty and disproportionality with students identified as LD. Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2011) used the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS) data to determine if race and socioeconomic status (SES)…”
ResultInfluentialAssessment of English Language Learners
Naglieri, J. A., & Otero, T. M. (2017) · doi:10.1002/9781394259380.ch4 · Cited by 2
Disability, Social Participation and the Role of the School
Finnvold, J. E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78194-1_4 · Cited by 1
Identity Construction and Multiple Identities
Jun, H. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50361-0_12 · Cited by 1
Early Predictors of Patterns of Disability Support Service Receipt in Elementary School
Bettencourt, A. F., Plesko, C. M., Gross, D. A., & Musci, R. J. (2024) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-024-09724-z · Cited by 1
“Disproportionality in who receives disability support services is an ongoing issue in US schools (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
Optimal evaluation policies to identify students with reading disabilities
Suresh, A., Kaplan, E. H., Pinker, E. J., et al. (2024) · Socio-Economic Planning Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.seps.2024.102116 · Cited by 1
Students with Disabilities Pursuing STEM: High School Math Preparation to Postsecondary Degree
Manly, C. A. (2026) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-026-09902-9 · Cited by 1
“Possible connections like these deserve more attention in future research with longitudinal datasets covering an even greater span of years in school-though-college than ELS.”
InfluentialAlmulhim, N. F., Aljughaiman, A., Alnaim, F., Alsayed, A., Alfawzan, S. K., & Alarfaj, A. A. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14050083 · Cited by 1
“…previous research has identified economic and cultural status as a determinant influencing both giftedness (e.g., Hodges & Gentry, 2021; McBee, 2006) and learning difficulties (e.g., Fields, 1999; Shifrer et al., 2011), future investigations should comprise students from public schools as well.”
Figueiredo, S., Martins, M. A., da Silva, C. F., et al. (2015) · The International Journal of Assessment and Evaluation · doi:10.18848/2327-7920/cgp/v22i02/48368 · Cited by 1
Bolstering Content by Promoting Language and Literacy in the Urban Science Classroom
Renn, J., & Duguay, A. L. (2019) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7814-7.ch005 · Cited by 1
Inklusive Bildung – regionale, nationale und internationale Forschung und Entwicklungslinien
Bešić, E., Holzinger, A., Kopp-Sixt, S. 1., Krammer, M., & Leykam-Buchverlag (2023) · Leykam Buchverlag eBooks · doi:10.56560/isbn.978-3-7011-0518-2 · Cited by 1
Socioeconomic disparities in pediatric sleep disordered breathing
Su‐Velez, B. M., & Boss, E. F. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99653-2.00003-1 · Cited by 1
Barrett, C. A., Maki, K. E., Miller, H. E., Bagasrawala, L., Burns, M. K., & Hajovsky, D. B. (2025) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/07319487251319530 · Cited by 1
“…student scores on standardized assessments and student characteristics, such as student race and ethnicity, affect SLD identification (Brown-Waesche et al., 2011; Francis et al., 2005; Miciak et al., 2018; Morgan et al., 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011; Spencer et al., 2014; Sullivan & Bal, 2013).”
Prevention Strategies for Students At-Risk for Learning Disabilities
Turton, A. M., & Green, S. L. (2013) · Advances in special education · doi:10.1108/s0270-4013(2013)0000024009 · Cited by 1
Social Position Variables of Specific Learning Disabilities: A National Perspective
Velázquez-Ramos, M., Sánchez‐Cardona, I., & Coll, C. G. (2018) · Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1177/0739986318788562 · Cited by 1
Investigating Teacher-Child Relationships as Pathways for Learning in Elementary School Classrooms
Varghese, C. A. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/6c66-9346 · Cited by 1
Fighting the School to Prison Pipeline One Child at A Time: A Clinical Tale of Race and Advocacy
Spielberg, W. (2022) · Journal of Infant Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/15289168.2022.2050344 · Cited by 1
“African American children are under-diagnosed when it comes to learning disabilities (Morgan et al., 2013; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMcDaniel, K. M. (2017) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6351-134-6_4 · Cited by 1
Schmaus, M. (2020) · doi:10.20378/irb-46949 · Cited by 1
Xu, C., Li, Y., Yu, H., Li, Q., Liang, Y., Zhou, K., Li, Q., Yu, X., Zeng, X., Qu, Y., et al. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4749516/v1 · Cited by 1
Martins, A., Figueiredo, S., & da Silva, M. R. (2015) · International Conference on Advances in Economics, Social Science and Human Behaviour Study (ESSHBS) · doi:10.15224/978-1-63248-041-5-60
“Shifrer et al. (2011) studied the disproportionate school behaviours among specific minorities considering sociodemographic variables and the disadvantages for education system disregard the second language learning context.”
BackgroundRedefining the No Child Left Behind Act's highly qualified teacher
Gill, J. S. (2015) · UTA ResearchCommons (University of Texas Arlington)
Auge, B. M. (2016) · Digital Commons - Hamline (Hamline University)
Themes and Dimensions of Learning Disabilities
Mazzotti, V. L., & Mustian, A. L. (2013) · Advances in special education · doi:10.1108/s0270-4013(2013)0000024005
Figueiredo, S., Martins, M. A., & da Silva, C. F. (2016) · International journal of advances in psychology · doi:10.14355/ijap.2016.05.004
“Academic and cognitive development of L2 learners will be compromised when living in difficult socioeconomic contexts (despite the age effect in L2 acquisition), since these directly affect literacy and learning (probably leading to slower learning processes, Hoff, 2003; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundTransitioning to a New Regime or More of the Same?
Jones, K., Burton, R., Forbes, C., et al. (2017) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6351-134-6_2
Identity Construction and Multiple Identities
Jun, H. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72514-7_12
Figueiredo, S., Martins, M. A., & da Silva, C. F. (2016) · Repositório Institucional da Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa (Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa) · doi:10.9790/0837-2106084961
Metadata
- Authors
- Shifrer, D., Muller, C., & Callahan, R.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Shifrer, Dara
- Venue
- Journal of Learning Disabilities
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 246-257
- ISSN
- 0022-2194 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4780
- PMC
- PMC4133990
- OpenAlex
- W2111405197
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 8.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Learning Disabilities (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0834177, 5 T32 HD007081, 5 R24 HD042849, 0965444)
- University of Texas at Austin (R24HD042849, 5 R24 HD042849, 5 T32 HD007081)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24HD042849, T32HD007081)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- learning disabilities, disproportionality, special education identification, race, socioeconomic status, language minority students, African American students, Hispanic students, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, gender differences, academic accommodations
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Black or African American, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Language, Learning Disabilities, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Social Class, United States, Multivariate Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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