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Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language
Open accessAbstract
The disproportionate identification of learning disabilities among certain sociodemographic subgroups, typically groups that are already disadvantaged, is perceived as a persistent problem within the education system. The academic and social experiences of students who are misidentified with a learning disability may be severely restricted, whereas students with a learning disability who are never identified are less likely to receive the accommodations and modifications necessary to learn at their maximum potential. The authors use the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 to describe national patterns in learning disability identification. Results indicate that sociodemographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability. Although some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities), differences in socioeconomic status entirely account for African American and Hispanic disproportionality. The discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in the investigation of disproportionality.
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In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicate that socio-demographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“differences in SES entirely account for African-American and Hispanic disproportionality.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our findings confirm the disproportionate representation of language minorities, at least for those who have ever been in ESL or who report a lack of English proficiency in the 10th grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our results suggest that the overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities is entirely explained by their lower average socioeconomic status (as a group).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for other covariates of SES and academic and language-immigration history, the odds of identification for a African-American student are significantly lower (28%) than a white student of comparable background (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“being a non-native English speaker is not significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability once socio-demographic characteristics are considered (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for the recent immigrant's lesser likelihood of identification, lack of current English proficiency becomes a significant predictor, increasing the odds of identification by 11% for every one-unit increase on the scale of limited proficiency.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to students who started in U.S. schools by kindergarten, the odds of identification are 96% less for students who started in U.S. schools between grades 6 and 10, net of all controls.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taking account of all systematic differences in background characteristics, there are no significant race differences in the odds of identification except for Asian students' lower odds (Model 6).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of our analytic sample, 6% are identified with a learning disability as indicated by an IEP”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“according to our bivariate analyses, African-Americans, Hispanics and students of an “other race” are also disproportionately identified with learning disabilities.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification for a student whose parent's native language is not English is 57% lower than counterparts, net of all controls (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“aspects of being a language minority appear to play a role in a student's likelihood of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification for an Asian student are 49% [100(Exp(B) – 1)%] lower than those of a white student of the same gender (Model 1).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification are 52% higher for students who participated in Head Start than they are for a comparable student who did not, net of all controls.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the disproportionate identification of African-American and Hispanic students with learning disabilities is accounted for by the lower average SES of these racial/ethnic subgroups”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“differences in SES or family background fail to account for the disproportionate representation of these students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Net of all controls, the odds of a male student being identified with a learning disability are almost double that of a comparable female (1.85 times greater net of all controls).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification for a student who reported having ever participated in ESL are 1.55 times higher than for a student who reported otherwise, net of all other controls (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in investigation of disproportionality.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > Who is Identified with a Learning Disability?
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Concluding that the schools that reported on some of their students had for the most part simply only reported when students did have an IEP, we were able to impute that the school had not identified the student with a learning disability for the 1,788 students who did not have an IEP report at those schools.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the multivariate analyses illuminate that disproportionate identification is actually being driven by differences in SES, a correlate of race in the U.S.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The finding that participation in ESL is significantly associated with disproportionate identification, though, suggests the role of specific structural mechanisms within schools as well.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that identification with a learning disability is correlated with socio-demographic characteristics suggests that identification of learning problems may reflect social differences rather than learning differences”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After excluding the 4,213 students attending schools that did not report the IEP status of any of their students, we achieve an analytic sample of 10,847 students within 546 high schools.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Attempts to limit disproportionality may in fact result in the denial of services to students who need them (Hallahan 1992; MacMillan and Reschly 1998).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This again suggests a tension between being identified as LEP and the student's learning difficulties being attributed to a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“With current diagnostic methods, it can be difficult to distinguish between a lack of English language proficiency and a learning disability (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, and Higareda 2005; Klingner and Harry 2006).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For reasons that are unclear, schools did not report on the IEP status of 7,314 of the students in the sample.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch 2006; Karlamangla, Singer, Williams, Schwartz, Matthews, Kiefe, and Seeman 2005), arthritis and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, and Crimmins 2001), are disproportionately distributed according to socio-demographic characteristics.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch 2006 source
- Not matchedcites Karlamangla, Singer, Williams, Schwartz, Matthews, Kiefe, and Seeman 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Blackwell, Hayward, and Crimmins 2001 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a large number of schools did not report IEP status for any students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“students who entered the U.S. school system at a later age have simply not experienced the same degree of exposure to risk of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“it is possible that these are valid diagnoses resulting from the greater likelihood of racial/ethnic minorities to have low SES (Blair and Scott 2002; Daniels 1998; MacMillan and Reschly 1998; O'Connor and Fernandez 2006; Skiba et al. 2008).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Racial/Ethnic Minorities
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“An attempt to address variable and inaccurate diagnostic practices occurred with the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA, via a specific “disproportionality amendment” and the incorporation of a new choice of diagnostic model, Response to Intervention (RTI) (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006; Shinn 2007).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By comparing school-level distributions, we found that, despite differences in reporting, there were comparable percentages of students identified as having an IEP and identified with a learning disability in the two sets of schools that reported on, 1) all of their students and 2) some of their students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grade retention and being older than peers in the 10th grade are significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“non-native English speakers comprise 12% of the analytic sample but 15% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, net of all controls, significant positive predictors of identification include having ever been in ESL or currently lacking in English proficiency, while having a parent who is not a native English speaker or having started in U.S. schools anytime after the early elementary grades persist as significant negative predictors.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Net of all controls, the odds of a student's identification increase by 6% with each additional sibling, and decrease by 11% for every one-unit increase in cognitive resources present in the household (Model 6).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“although SES is significantly associated with identification with a learning disability, it is unclear whether this is due to environmental or prenatal factors, both of which affect childhood development (Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000), or the way that schools treat students depending on their socioeconomic background.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to highest parental education level, which is rendered insignificant once measures of covariates of SES and academic history are held constant, family income is consistently negatively associated with identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all of the significant race/ethnicity effects are explained once we account for the systematic differences in SES between these groups by including controls for highest parental education level and family income (Model 2). The one exception is that the odds of being identified for an Asian student are 54% lower than for a white of comparable SES.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds are also 1.56 times greater for Native Americans and 1.42 times greater for students of any other race (Model 1); the former effect is not significant and the latter is only marginally so”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Males are disproportionately identified, representing 50% of our analytic sample but 66% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification with a learning disability are 1.43 times greater for African-Americans and 1.49 times greater for Hispanics compared to whites (the reference category), controlling for gender (Model 1).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 6, having been in ESL remains a significant positive predictor and having a non-native-English-speaking parent remains a significant negative predictor of identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“identification with a learning disability is associated with a student's sex, socio-demographic (non-cognitive) characteristics, and academic history”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Males
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are intentionally parsimonious in our inclusion of measures of academic experiences and outcomes, because these may be the result rather than the cause of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Samson and Lesaux (2009) used the nationally representative dataset ECLS-K to determine that language minority students are identified later and in higher proportions than their native-English-speaking peers, being underrepresented in special education in kindergarten and first grade, but overrepresented by the 3rd grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Language Minorities
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Samson and Lesaux 2009 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“Bradley et al. (2007) describe the three tiers of RTI as 1) the receipt of research-based instruction by all students, 2) observation of all students for response to instruction, and 3) “individualized and intensive interventions and services” for those students who need it.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley et al. 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“multivariate, multilevel modeling of national data that includes student-level measures of identification, SES, other socio-demographic characteristics, and academic history is essential.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the proportion of schools that are high-minority and high-poverty within the analytic sample and the sample of excluded schools are similar, we cannot claim with confidence that our analytic sample is nationally representative.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“due to data constraints, we cannot thoroughly illuminate the mechanisms whereby this may occur.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The persistent significant associations between identification and these characteristics suggest that identification with a learning disability is not socially neutral, but rather related to structural features of the education system and students' academic histories.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the actual learning disability diagnosis may have occurred before the 10th grade, we were careful to select time invariant or retrospective measures that were not likely to be a result of having been identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data from ELS, however, were collected prior to the implementation of RTI; consequently, our findings must be interpreted separately from the RTI approach to identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Poor and inappropriate diagnostic procedures and/or discrimination may play a role in the disproportionate identification of certain students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the use of a dataset like ELS is a strength of this study – large and nationally representative of students receiving both special and regular education”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“RTI is thought to better account for “interpersonal and institutional factors” affecting the student and to improve practices on a school-wide basis (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
- Not matchedcites Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results would be bolstered by a more nuanced measure of the type of learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research confirms that resources in the home during early childhood positively contribute to the development of both cognitive and learning ability (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Despite the issuance of an IDEA regulatory guide in 2006, the process of RTI is still somewhat ambiguous and its effect has not been thoroughly researched (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“MacMillan and Reschly (1998) point out that African-Americans are disproportionately represented in intervention programs (e.g., Head Start, Chapter 1, Follow Through), just as they are overrepresented in special education programs.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites MacMillan and Reschly 1998 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two distinct basic measures of SES – highest parental education level and family income – were used rather than a composite measure since each component may contribute differentially to identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bivariate analyses, in contrast to multivariate analyses, depend on the implicit assumption that the average backgrounds of different groups of people are similar and unrelated to the outcome of interest.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Research focusing solely on bivariate analyses inadvertently neglects a myriad of possible explanatory factors, and ultimately may result in misguided directions for future research and policy-making.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were able to determine that 351 of the schools indicated the IEP status of all of the students sampled from their school, 196 schools reported on some of the students sampled, and 204 schools reported on none of the students sampled.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean and mode imputation was used to account for missing values on all independent variables except for race and gender; imputation flags were included in all multivariate models.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of a potential correlation between grade retention and identification with a learning disability, and the greater likelihood of low SES students to be held back, we include four dummies indicating whether the student repeated one or more grades during early elementary (K-2), late elementary (3-5), middle/high school (6-10).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
“We utilize the variable indicating whether the student is identified with a learning disability by their school in the 10th grade1. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is enacted when students are identified as eligible for special education services, and the school's designation indicates specifically whether the student has an IEP for a Specific Learning Disability.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency.
“exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan 2005)”
The paper relies on this without support.
No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
“no research exists indicating that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability.
“federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability”
The paper relies on this without support.
A student's report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling.
“a student report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the great variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling”
The paper relies on this without support.
More recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during elementary years.
“more recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during the elementary years”
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
Widiger, T. A. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10518-009 · Cited by 19,766
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
(2000) · doi:10.17226/9824 · Cited by 4,484 · cited 3×
“…Medicine of the National Academies concludes that early experiences influence brain development, that culture influences early development through child-rearing beliefs and practices, and that the brain can actually be harmed by poor nutrition, health, or chronic stress (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).”
BackgroundEducation and Treatment of Children
Hickman, J. A., Wheatley, J. K., & Sheridan, K. D. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese0816 · Cited by 3,235
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
Carey, W. B. (2001) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-200104000-00011 · Cited by 2,678
Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges
Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., Cuadrado, J., & Chung, C.-G. (2008) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290807400301 · Cited by 664 · cited 9×
“…has tended to focus on the disproportional identification of Black students with mental retardation and emotional disturbance (OSEP, 2007; Skiba et al., 2008), there is evidence to suggest that the gap between Black and White students in rates of identification with a learning disability…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGalobardes, B., Smith, G. D., & Lynch, J. W. (2006) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.06.053 · Cited by 643 · cited 1×
“…should be proportionately distributed throughout the population, but the fact is that other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch, 2006; Karlamangla et al., 2005), arthritis, and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, & Crimmins, 2001), are disproportionately…”
BackgroundTracking and High School English Learners: Limiting Opportunity to Learn
Callahan, R. M. (2005) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312042002305 · Cited by 511 · cited 2×
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career and that exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan, 2005), it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
BackgroundSelf-citationArtiles, A. J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J. J., & Higareda, I. (2005) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290507100305 · Cited by 496 · cited 3×
“Language minorities are also affected by the lack of proper assessment in their native language (Artiles et al., 2005; Klingner & Harry, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodDoes childhood health affect chronic morbidity in later life?
Blackwell, D. L., Hayward, M. D., & Crimmins, E. M. (2001) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00230-6 · Cited by 424
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 49 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Deshler, D.D., 2004, Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 2, 30
- Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center., 2009, The Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center
- Education Resources Information Center, 2000, Research Connections in Special Education, 7
- Field, M.J., 2006, Workshop on disability in America, a new look: Summary and background papers
- Kavale, K.A., 1994, Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 9, 70
- Office of Special Education Programs., 2007, 27th annual (2005) report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
- Office of Special Education Programs., History-Twenty-five years of progress in educating children with disabilities through IDEA
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Minorities Are Disproportionately Underrepresented in Special Education
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Mattison, R. E., Maczuga, S., Li, H., & Cook, M. (2015) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x15591157 · Cited by 530
“Those studies adjusting for individual- and family-level as well as school-level potential confounds consistently indicate the minority children are underrepresented in special education, with this underrepresentation evident both generally and for specific disability conditions and both prior to and following school…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSullivan, A. L., & Bal, A. (2013) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440291307900406 · Cited by 283
“Nonetheless, the results do indicate that school context influences the likelihood of special education identification, consistent with the conclusion of other researchers who concluded that social difference and context matter in the identification of educational disabilities (e.g., Hibel et al., 2010; Shifrer et al.…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialShifrer, D. (2013) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146513503346 · Cited by 257
“The disproportionate labeling of language minorities is particularly indicative of problematic diagnostic processes (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLeading Inclusive Schools: Principal Perceptions, Practices, and Challenges to Meaningful Change
DeMatthews, D. E., Serafini, A., & Watson, T. N. (2020) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x20913897 · Cited by 307
“Many factors contribute to segregated schooling for low-income students of color identified with disabilities (Banks, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRace and Disability: From Analogy to Intersectionality
Frederick, A., & Shifrer, D. (2019) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/2332649218783480 · Cited by 203
“African Americans and American Indians have the highest rate of experiencing disability in the United States, patterns created by both economic disparities and racial discrimination (Anderson 2012; Krieger 2012; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011; Turner 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Shifrer, D., Muller, C., & Callahan, R.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Shifrer, Dara
- Venue
- Journal of Learning Disabilities
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 246-257
- ISSN
- 0022-2194 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4780
- PMC
- PMC4133990
- OpenAlex
- W2111405197
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 8.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Learning Disabilities (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0834177, 5 T32 HD007081, 5 R24 HD042849, 0965444)
- University of Texas at Austin (R24HD042849, 5 R24 HD042849, 5 T32 HD007081)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24HD042849, T32HD007081)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- learning disabilities, disproportionality, special education identification, race, socioeconomic status, language minority students, African American students, Hispanic students, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, gender differences, academic accommodations
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Black or African American, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Language, Learning Disabilities, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Social Class, United States, Multivariate Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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