The DOI matches its Crossref record; 48 of the 49 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 26 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language
Open accessAbstract
The disproportionate identification of learning disabilities among certain sociodemographic subgroups, typically groups that are already disadvantaged, is perceived as a persistent problem within the education system. The academic and social experiences of students who are misidentified with a learning disability may be severely restricted, whereas students with a learning disability who are never identified are less likely to receive the accommodations and modifications necessary to learn at their maximum potential. The authors use the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 to describe national patterns in learning disability identification. Results indicate that sociodemographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability. Although some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities), differences in socioeconomic status entirely account for African American and Hispanic disproportionality. The discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in the investigation of disproportionality.
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In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results indicate that socio-demographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“differences in SES entirely account for African-American and Hispanic disproportionality.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our findings confirm the disproportionate representation of language minorities, at least for those who have ever been in ESL or who report a lack of English proficiency in the 10th grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our results suggest that the overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities is entirely explained by their lower average socioeconomic status (as a group).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for other covariates of SES and academic and language-immigration history, the odds of identification for a African-American student are significantly lower (28%) than a white student of comparable background (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“being a non-native English speaker is not significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability once socio-demographic characteristics are considered (Model 5).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“once we account for the recent immigrant's lesser likelihood of identification, lack of current English proficiency becomes a significant predictor, increasing the odds of identification by 11% for every one-unit increase on the scale of limited proficiency.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to students who started in U.S. schools by kindergarten, the odds of identification are 96% less for students who started in U.S. schools between grades 6 and 10, net of all controls.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grade retention and being older than peers in the 10th grade are significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“non-native English speakers comprise 12% of the analytic sample but 15% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, net of all controls, significant positive predictors of identification include having ever been in ESL or currently lacking in English proficiency, while having a parent who is not a native English speaker or having started in U.S. schools anytime after the early elementary grades persist as significant negative predictors.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Net of all controls, the odds of a student's identification increase by 6% with each additional sibling, and decrease by 11% for every one-unit increase in cognitive resources present in the household (Model 6).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“although SES is significantly associated with identification with a learning disability, it is unclear whether this is due to environmental or prenatal factors, both of which affect childhood development (Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000), or the way that schools treat students depending on their socioeconomic background.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to highest parental education level, which is rendered insignificant once measures of covariates of SES and academic history are held constant, family income is consistently negatively associated with identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all of the significant race/ethnicity effects are explained once we account for the systematic differences in SES between these groups by including controls for highest parental education level and family income (Model 2). The one exception is that the odds of being identified for an Asian student are 54% lower than for a white of comparable SES.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds are also 1.56 times greater for Native Americans and 1.42 times greater for students of any other race (Model 1); the former effect is not significant and the latter is only marginally so”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Males are disproportionately identified, representing 50% of our analytic sample but 66% of those identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Bivariate Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the odds of identification with a learning disability are 1.43 times greater for African-Americans and 1.49 times greater for Hispanics compared to whites (the reference category), controlling for gender (Model 1).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Model 6, having been in ESL remains a significant positive predictor and having a non-native-English-speaking parent remains a significant negative predictor of identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Conventional Markers of Disproportionality: Multivariate Analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“identification with a learning disability is associated with a student's sex, socio-demographic (non-cognitive) characteristics, and academic history”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Males
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are intentionally parsimonious in our inclusion of measures of academic experiences and outcomes, because these may be the result rather than the cause of identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Samson and Lesaux (2009) used the nationally representative dataset ECLS-K to determine that language minority students are identified later and in higher proportions than their native-English-speaking peers, being underrepresented in special education in kindergarten and first grade, but overrepresented by the 3rd grade.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Background > The Case of Language Minorities
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Samson and Lesaux 2009 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
In the paper
“Bradley et al. (2007) describe the three tiers of RTI as 1) the receipt of research-based instruction by all students, 2) observation of all students for response to instruction, and 3) “individualized and intensive interventions and services” for those students who need it.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley et al. 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“multivariate, multilevel modeling of national data that includes student-level measures of identification, SES, other socio-demographic characteristics, and academic history is essential.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the proportion of schools that are high-minority and high-poverty within the analytic sample and the sample of excluded schools are similar, we cannot claim with confidence that our analytic sample is nationally representative.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“due to data constraints, we cannot thoroughly illuminate the mechanisms whereby this may occur.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The persistent significant associations between identification and these characteristics suggest that identification with a learning disability is not socially neutral, but rather related to structural features of the education system and students' academic histories.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Results > Other Socio-demographic Predictors of Identification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the actual learning disability diagnosis may have occurred before the 10th grade, we were careful to select time invariant or retrospective measures that were not likely to be a result of having been identified with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data from ELS, however, were collected prior to the implementation of RTI; consequently, our findings must be interpreted separately from the RTI approach to identification.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Poor and inappropriate diagnostic procedures and/or discrimination may play a role in the disproportionate identification of certain students.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the use of a dataset like ELS is a strength of this study – large and nationally representative of students receiving both special and regular education”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“RTI is thought to better account for “interpersonal and institutional factors” affecting the student and to improve practices on a school-wide basis (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
- Not matchedcites Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results would be bolstered by a more nuanced measure of the type of learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Previous research confirms that resources in the home during early childhood positively contribute to the development of both cognitive and learning ability (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Despite the issuance of an IDEA regulatory guide in 2006, the process of RTI is still somewhat ambiguous and its effect has not been thoroughly researched (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“MacMillan and Reschly (1998) point out that African-Americans are disproportionately represented in intervention programs (e.g., Head Start, Chapter 1, Follow Through), just as they are overrepresented in special education programs.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites MacMillan and Reschly 1998 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two distinct basic measures of SES – highest parental education level and family income – were used rather than a composite measure since each component may contribute differentially to identification with a learning disability.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bivariate analyses, in contrast to multivariate analyses, depend on the implicit assumption that the average backgrounds of different groups of people are similar and unrelated to the outcome of interest.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Research focusing solely on bivariate analyses inadvertently neglects a myriad of possible explanatory factors, and ultimately may result in misguided directions for future research and policy-making.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were able to determine that 351 of the schools indicated the IEP status of all of the students sampled from their school, 196 schools reported on some of the students sampled, and 204 schools reported on none of the students sampled.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Dependent Variable
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mean and mode imputation was used to account for missing values on all independent variables except for race and gender; imputation flags were included in all multivariate models.”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of a potential correlation between grade retention and identification with a learning disability, and the greater likelihood of low SES students to be held back, we include four dummies indicating whether the student repeated one or more grades during early elementary (K-2), late elementary (3-5), middle/high school (6-10).”
§ Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language > Data and Methods > Independent Variables
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
“We utilize the variable indicating whether the student is identified with a learning disability by their school in the 10th grade1. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is enacted when students are identified as eligible for special education services, and the school's designation indicates specifically whether the student has an IEP for a Specific Learning Disability.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency.
“exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan 2005)”
The paper relies on this without support.
No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
“no research exists indicating that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability.
“federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability”
The paper relies on this without support.
A student's report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling.
“a student report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the great variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling”
The paper relies on this without support.
More recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during elementary years.
“more recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during the elementary years”
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
Widiger, T. A. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10518-009 · Cited by 19,766
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
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“…Medicine of the National Academies concludes that early experiences influence brain development, that culture influences early development through child-rearing beliefs and practices, and that the brain can actually be harmed by poor nutrition, health, or chronic stress (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).”
BackgroundEducation and Treatment of Children
Hickman, J. A., Wheatley, J. K., & Sheridan, K. D. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese0816 · Cited by 3,235
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
Carey, W. B. (2001) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-200104000-00011 · Cited by 2,678
Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges
Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., Cuadrado, J., & Chung, C.-G. (2008) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290807400301 · Cited by 664 · cited 9×
“…has tended to focus on the disproportional identification of Black students with mental retardation and emotional disturbance (OSEP, 2007; Skiba et al., 2008), there is evidence to suggest that the gap between Black and White students in rates of identification with a learning disability…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGalobardes, B., Smith, G. D., & Lynch, J. W. (2006) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.06.053 · Cited by 643 · cited 1×
“…should be proportionately distributed throughout the population, but the fact is that other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch, 2006; Karlamangla et al., 2005), arthritis, and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, & Crimmins, 2001), are disproportionately…”
BackgroundTracking and High School English Learners: Limiting Opportunity to Learn
Callahan, R. M. (2005) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312042002305 · Cited by 511 · cited 2×
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career and that exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan, 2005), it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
BackgroundSelf-citationArtiles, A. J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J. J., & Higareda, I. (2005) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290507100305 · Cited by 496 · cited 3×
“Language minorities are also affected by the lack of proper assessment in their native language (Artiles et al., 2005; Klingner & Harry, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodDoes childhood health affect chronic morbidity in later life?
Blackwell, D. L., Hayward, M. D., & Crimmins, E. M. (2001) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00230-6 · Cited by 424
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Minorities Are Disproportionately Underrepresented in Special Education
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Mattison, R. E., Maczuga, S., Li, H., & Cook, M. (2015) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x15591157 · Cited by 530
“Those studies adjusting for individual- and family-level as well as school-level potential confounds consistently indicate the minority children are underrepresented in special education, with this underrepresentation evident both generally and for specific disability conditions and both prior to and following school…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSullivan, A. L., & Bal, A. (2013) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440291307900406 · Cited by 283
“Nonetheless, the results do indicate that school context influences the likelihood of special education identification, consistent with the conclusion of other researchers who concluded that social difference and context matter in the identification of educational disabilities (e.g., Hibel et al., 2010; Shifrer et al.…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialShifrer, D. (2013) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146513503346 · Cited by 257
“The disproportionate labeling of language minorities is particularly indicative of problematic diagnostic processes (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLeading Inclusive Schools: Principal Perceptions, Practices, and Challenges to Meaningful Change
DeMatthews, D. E., Serafini, A., & Watson, T. N. (2020) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x20913897 · Cited by 307
“Many factors contribute to segregated schooling for low-income students of color identified with disabilities (Banks, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRace and Disability: From Analogy to Intersectionality
Frederick, A., & Shifrer, D. (2019) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/2332649218783480 · Cited by 203
“African Americans and American Indians have the highest rate of experiencing disability in the United States, patterns created by both economic disparities and racial discrimination (Anderson 2012; Krieger 2012; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011; Turner 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRisks and Consequences of Oversimplifying Educational Inequities
Skiba, R. J., Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E. B., Losen, D. J., & Harry, E. G. (2016) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x16644606 · Cited by 166
“…upon indirect methods of counting special education enrollment from teacher or administrator survey (e.g., Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011) have tended to find that the introduction of SES as an independent variable reduces findings of overrepresentation to…”
MethodEneriz-Wiemer, M., Sanders, L., Barr, D. A., & Mendoza, F. (2014) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2013.10.003 · Cited by 167
Disability and Victimization in a National Sample of Children and Youth
Turner, H. A., Vanderminden, J., Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S., & Shattuck, A. (2011) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559511427178 · Cited by 161
Fish, R. E. (2019) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831219847966 · Cited by 174
“used in many studies (Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011), the size and completeness of the data allow for investigation of racial”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReplicated Evidence of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Disability Identification in U.S. Schools
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Maczuga, S. (2017) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x17726282 · Cited by 145
“Children’s primary disability condition was also reported, and conditions examined included ED, autism, other health impairment (OHI), SLD, SLI, ID, or ADHD.3 The OHI condition included many children with ADHD but also children with other types of disabilities, including anxiety, seizure disorders, diabetes, asthma, a…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAn Integrative Synthesis of Literature on Disproportionality in Special Education
Cruz, R. A., & Rodl, J. E. (2018) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466918758707 · Cited by 127
“…regression model; Hibel et al. (2008) found that Black, Latino, and Asian students were significantly underrepresented in special education; and Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2011) found that when controlling for parent education and family income, all significant race effects were explained…”
BackgroundMorgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Cook, M., Strassfeld, N. M., Hillemeier, M., Pun, W.-H., & Schussler, D. L. (2017) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402916664042 · Cited by 104
“, 2005), some recent studies have found that they are less likely to be referred or found eligible for special education when contrasted to otherwise similar White children (e.g., Hibel, Farkas, & Morgan, 2010; P. L. Morgan et al., 2012, 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKirby, M. (2016) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9382-x · Cited by 121
“…language, added in the 2004 revision of IDEA, was prompted by the overrepresentation of African American students in high incidence disability categories, as well as an increase in the number of students receiving services under the learning disabilities category (Ciolfi 2011; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSocioeconomic Status and Reading Disability: Neuroanatomy and Plasticity in Response to Intervention
Romeo, R. R., Christodoulou, J. A., Halverson, K. K., Murtagh, J., Cyr, A. B., Schimmel, C., Chang, P., Hook, P. E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx131 · Cited by 121
“This is an important gap in knowledge to address, because children from lower-SES backgrounds disproportionately meet RD criteria (Peterson and Pennington 2015) and are diagnosed with specific learning disabilities at significantly higher rates than children from higher SES backgrounds (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundKimball, E. W., Wells, R. S., Ostiguy, B. J., Manly, C. A., & Lauterbach, A. A. (2016) · Higher education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26829-3_3 · Cited by 122
People with Disabilities: Sidelined or Mainstreamed?
Schur, L. A., Kruse, D. L., & Blanck, P. (2013) · Cited by 116
Shifrer, D., Callahan, R. M., & Muller, C. (2013) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831213479439 · Cited by 106
“Racial minorities (Blanchett, 2006), students from economically disadvantaged families (Shifrer et al., 2011), and language minority youth (Ochoa et al.”
InfluentialSelf-citationFish, R. E. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.007 · Cited by 102
A Snapshot of RTI Implementation a Decade Later: New Picture, Same Story
Berkeley, S. L., Scanlon, D. J., Bailey, T. R., Sutton, J. C., & Sacco, D. M. (2020) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219420915867 · Cited by 103
Disproportionality in Special Education: A Synthesis of International Research and Trends
Cooc, N., & Kiru, E. W. (2018) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466918772300 · Cited by 88
Factors Influencing Clinical Correlates of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): a Review
Asken, B. M., Sullan, M. J., Snyder, A., Houck, Z. M., Bryant, V. E., Hizel, L. P., McLaren, M. E., Dede, D. E., Jaffee, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., et al. (2016) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9327-z · Cited by 90
“disproportionally diagnosed with learning disability (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSchool Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification
Elder, T. E., Figlio, D., Imberman, S. A., & Persico, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/711421 · Cited by 72
Delayed Special Education Placement for Learning Disabilities among Children of Immigrants
Hibel, J., & Jasper, A. D. (2012) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sos092 · Cited by 81
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Cook, M., Strassfeld, N. M., Hillemeier, M. M., Pun, W. H., Wang, Y., & Schussler, D. L. (2018) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402917748303 · Cited by 74
“We identified several studies providing numerical estimates of disproportionate representation of ELL (e.g., Samson & Lesaux, 2009) and for language-minority children (Hibel & Jasper, 2012; Morgan et al., 2012; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
Dunn, K., Rydzewska, E., Fleming, M., & Cooper, S. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035280 · Cited by 68
“19 20 While prevalence rates of health conditions in a full country population for individuals with intellectual disabilities and individuals with autism have been compared with the general population in previous work using the Scotland’s Census 2011, 3 4 7 no such study has been conducted on the…”
Parsing the Relations of Race and Socioeconomic Status in Special Education Disproportionality
Kincaid, A. P., & Sullivan, A. L. (2016) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932516671199 · Cited by 62
Quinn, J. M., Wagner, R. K., Petscher, Y., Roberts, G., Menzel, A. J., & Schatschneider, C. W. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000382 · Cited by 82
Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes: Neurobiological and behavioral correlates
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20475 · Cited by 80
Shifrer, D. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.12.001 · Cited by 55
Self-citationEmery, A. A., & Anderman, L. H. (2020) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2020.1787170 · Cited by 89
On Cultural Politics in Special Education: Is Much of It Justifiable?
Kauffman, J. M., & Anastasiou, D. (2019) · Journal of Disability Policy Studies · doi:10.1177/1044207318822262 · Cited by 51
Educational Psychology: Using Insights from Implicit Attitude Measures
Glock, S., & Kovacs, C. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9241-3 · Cited by 59
“…consistently shown that grading, tracking, as well as special needs referrals are not exclusively based on the academic performance of students (Glock et al. 2013c; Hallinan 1991; Kao and Thompson 2003; Portes and MacLeod 1999; Shifrer et al. 2010; Skiba et al. 2008; Southworth and Mickelson 2007).”
BackgroundMarkova, M., Cate, I. P.-T., Krolak‐Schwerdt, S., & Glock, S. (2015) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2015.1055317 · Cited by 55
“For example, teachers may hold lower educational expectations for students with immigrant backgrounds or SEN because of cumulative social and academic disadvantages (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialShifrer, D. (2018) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00380253.2018.1479198 · Cited by 48
“…rates (Morgan and Farkas 2015, 2016; Morgan et al. 2015, 2013), this study interprets findings like these as evidence of the importance of inequality outside of schools for education and health outcomes, similar to Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2011) and Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationDisability at the intersections
Shifrer, D., & Frederick, A. (2019) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12733 · Cited by 59
“Special education controls learning opportunities (Shifrer et al. 2011; Shifrer 2013, 2016), potentially particularly limiting opportunities for youth with more restrictive placements, that is, youth educated into separate classrooms with different curriculum.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCooc, N. (2016) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362835.2016.1216847 · Cited by 45
Understanding Disability: High-Quality Evidence in Research on Special Education Disproportionality
Ahram, R., Voulgarides, C. K., & Cruz, R. A. (2021) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x20985069 · Cited by 51
“…predictors in their models, the magnitude of this underrepresentation in special education reduces (Hibel et al., 2010; Mann et al., 2007; Shifrer et al., 2011; Talbott et al., 2011), underscoring the importance of local contextual factors and variation in special education…”
BackgroundSullivan, A. L., Artiles, A. J., & Hernández-Saca, D. I. (2014) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2014.929969 · Cited by 45
Social isolation and achievement of students with learning disabilities
Bruefach, T., & Reynolds, J. R. (2021) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102667 · Cited by 43
District-Level Achievement Gaps Explain Black and Hispanic Overrepresentation in Special Education
Farkas, G., Morgan, P. L., Hillemeier, M. M., et al. (2020) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402919893695 · Cited by 41
“This finding has been observed using different data sets and statistical methods (Morgan et al., 2012, 2015, 2018; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, et al., 2017, 2018) as well as by other researchers analyzing other databases (Cooc, 2019; Fish, 2019; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
ResultSong, L., Fang, P., Jiang, Z., Li, S., Song, X., & Wan, Y. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105408 · Cited by 40
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners in Special Education: English Learners
Counts, J., Katsiyannis, A., & Whitford, D. K. (2018) · NASSP Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0192636518755945 · Cited by 39
“As a result, teachers continue to refer students who exhibit low-language proficiency for special education identification rather than addressing language deficits, resulting in overrepresentation of EL in special education (Artiles et al., 2010; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialEligibility for Special Education in Elementary School: The Role of Diverse Language Experiences
Yamasaki, B. L., & Luk, G. (2018) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2018_lshss-dyslc-18-0006 · Cited by 39
Hernández-Saca, D. I., & Cannon, M. A. (2019) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/09518398.2019.1576944 · Cited by 42
Disability as Status Competition: The Role of Race in Classifying Children
Skrtic, T. M., Saatcioglu, A., & Nichols, A. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231211024398 · Cited by 37
“Low-income children may be deprived of family and community conditions that adversely affect their growth and development, making them more prone to disabilities (MacMillan and Reschly 1998; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundCooc, N. (2021) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2021.10.002 · Cited by 44
Scott, A. N., Hauerwas, L. B., & Brown, R. (2013) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0731948713507261 · Cited by 36
Examining Racial Disparities in Teacher Perceptions of Student Disabilities
Cooc, N. (2017) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811711900703 · Cited by 34
Selection for special education services: the role of gender and socio-economic status
Kvande, M. N., Belsky, J., & Wichstrøm, L. (2018) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2017.1373493 · Cited by 27
Teacher-Student Race Match and Identification for Discretionary Educational Services
Hart, C. M. D., & Lindsay, C. A. (2024) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312241229413 · Cited by 34
“…even when students were compared to those of similar socioeconomic status (Grindal et al., 2019), others have found that race gaps in some types of special education services were partially (Sullivan & Bal, 2013) or fully (Shifrer et al., 2011) mediated by socioeconomic factors.”
BackgroundWhen Average Is Not Good Enough: Students With Learning Disabilities at Selective, Private Colleges
Weis, R., Erickson, C. P., & Till, C. H. (2016) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219416646706 · Cited by 32
Vouyoukas, C., Τζουριάδου, Μ., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Μιχαλοπούλου, Λ. Ε. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016686150 · Cited by 32
Shifrer, D., & Fish, R. E. (2019) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869319847243 · Cited by 33
Self-citationSolari, E. J., Petscher, Y., & Folsom, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219412463435 · Cited by 31
“Scott, 2002) and language minorities (Shifrer, Muller, & Callahan, 2011) and Hispanics who come from lower income backgrounds (Shifrer et al., 2011) are identified at a higher rate as LD.”
BackgroundCooc, N. (2019) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466919839029 · Cited by 30
“…(ORs) for AAPIs receiving special education relative to White students in studies ranged from 0.23 to 0.66 (Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, & Maczuga, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan & Bal, 2013), which covers the national OR of 0.49 (U.S. Department of Education, 2016a).”
BackgroundInfluentialRehfeld, D. M., Kirkpatrick, M., O’Guinn, N., & Renbarger, R. (2022) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2022_lshss-21-00160 · Cited by 40
Der Prozess der Feststellung sonderpädagogischen Förderbedarfs in Deutschland
Sälzer, C., Gebhardt, M., Müller, K., et al. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-06604-8_5 · Cited by 29
Salvatore, S., White, C., & Podowitz‐Thomas, S. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00508-0 · Cited by 43
“…misdiagnosis, and shifting diagnosis criteria are common for neurodivergent people (Akinhanmi et al., 2018; Ennis-Cole et al., 2013; Fadus et al., 2020; Fitzger-ald, 2002; Frances et al., 2022; Grimm & Schulz, 2014; Lai & Baron-Cohen, 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011; Wood-Downie et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSuicide Attempts Among Individuals With Specific Learning Disorders: An Underrecognized Issue
Fuller‐Thomson, E., Carroll, S. Z., & Yang, W. (2017) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219417714776 · Cited by 28
“The prevalence of SLDs diagnoses varies substantially by race (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundStrand, S., & Lindorff, A. (2021) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402921990895 · Cited by 27
“Other studies in the United States with pupil-level data (e.g., Donovan & Cross, 2002; Kincaid & Sullivan, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011) have also reported significant associations with SES.”
BackgroundCheung, W. C., Shen, S., & Meadan, H. (2021) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-021-09796-8 · Cited by 32
What Does a Culturally Sustaining Learning Climate Look Like?
Doucet, F. (2017) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2017.1354618 · Cited by 28
“This circumstance is not aided by the reality that assessments have not yet been developed that can parse whether students’ difficulties with acquisition of English are due simply to how hard it is to learn another language or to students’ actual cognitive limitations or learning disabilities (MacSwan & Rolstad, 2006;…”
BackgroundInfluentialA longitudinal analysis of school discipline events among youth in foster care
Kothari, B. H., Godlewski, B. J., McBeath, B., McGee, M. G., Waid, J., Lipscomb, S. T., & Bank, L. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.017 · Cited by 27
“Students with disabilities also experience more discipline events than their peers, particularly those with learning disabilities (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShifrer, D., & Callahan, R. M. (2010) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/016264341002500307 · Cited by 27
Self-citationSchool Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification
Elder, T. E., Figlio, D., Imberman, S. A., & Persico, C. L. (2019) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w25829 · Cited by 25
IDEA’s Double Bind: A Synthesis of Disproportionality Policy Interpretations
Sullivan, A. L., & Osher, D. A. (2019) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402918818047 · Cited by 25
Shadow education, pandemic style: Social class, race, and supplemental education during Covid-19
Lee, J. C., Quadlin, N. Y., & Ambriz, D. (2022) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2022.100755 · Cited by 25
Brunelle, K., Abdulle, S., & Gorey, K. M. (2019) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-019-00631-w · Cited by 31
State English learner education policy: A conceptual framework to guide comprehensive policy action
Umansky, I. M., & Porter, L. (2020) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.28.4594 · Cited by 24
Peters, C. D., Kranzler, J. H., Algina, J. J., et al. (2014) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21761 · Cited by 23
Race, Response to Intervention, and Reading Research
Willis, A. I. (2019) · Journal of Literacy Research · doi:10.1177/1086296x19877463 · Cited by 28
Stevens, J. J., & Schulte, A. C. (2016) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219415618496 · Cited by 22
Park, S. (2020) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146812012200510 · Cited by 21
“13% of all students (Shifrer et al., 2011; Watkins & Liu, 2013; Zehler et al., 2003).”
BackgroundWallace, J., Worts, P. R., Moran, R., Mason, J., Weise, K. K., Swanson, M. W., & Murray, N. G. (2020) · Journal of Clinical and Translational Research · doi:10.18053/jctres.06.202005.002 · Cited by 19
Tometten, L., Heyder, A., & Steinmayr, R. (2021) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.102022 · Cited by 27
Finnvold, J. E. (2018) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2018.1424781 · Cited by 20
“Several reviews have systematised the research on physical disabilities and social participation (Imms 2008; Pratt, Baker, and Gaebler-Spira 2008; Shikako-Thomas et al. 2008; Bottcher 2010; Bult et al. 2011; Piškur et al. 2012).”
BackgroundA DisCrit-Informed Critique of the Difference vs. Disorder Approach in Speech-Language Pathology
Yu, B., Epstein, L., & Tisi, V. (2021) · Advances in linguistics and communication studies · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7134-7.ch006 · Cited by 21
Morgan, P. L., & Farkas, G. (2016) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.17988/0198-7429-41.2.122 · Cited by 20
Is Dis-Ability a Foregone Conclusion? Research and Policy Solutions to Disproportionality
Cruz, R. A., Voulgarides, C. K., Firestone, A. R., McDermott, L., & Feng, Z. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231212935 · Cited by 22
“(Shifrer et al., 2011, p. 254) These articles argued that, although schools must be equipped with resources that enable students to thrive, federal policy must dismantle the reproduction of societal hierarchies that function at the core of a neoliberal, capitalist society.”
Mallett, C. A., Quinn, L., Yun, J., et al. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221081024 · Cited by 17
“This disproportionate impact has been the case for decades (Burrell & Warboys, 2000; Losen & Gillespie, 2012), with the intersection of poverty, socioeconomic inequalities, and related institutional racism explaining this disparity (Shifrer, 2018; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShifrer, D., & Freeman, D. M. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023121998116 · Cited by 16
“Researchers document how a child’s social background shapes the disabilities youth actually experience (Konkel 2012; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDoes the ‘Learning Disability’ label lower teachers’ performance expectations?
Kashikar, L., Soemers, L., Lüke, T., & Grosche, M. (2023) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-023-09775-1 · Cited by 15
“This group actually carries a threefold risk for lower teachers’ expectations, as it is often low-achieving, comes from families with lower socio-economic status (Shifrer et al., 2011), and has a migration background (Gabel et al.”
BackgroundEnhancing Instruction for English Learners in Response to Intervention Systems: The PLUSS Model
Sanford, A. K., Brown, J. E., & Turner, M. (2012) · PDXScholar (Portland State University) · Cited by 16
Banerjee, R., Sundeen, T. H., Hutchinson, S. R., & Jackson, L. B. (2016) · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12363 · Cited by 15
Wright, T. S., Ochrach, C. M., Blaydes, M., & Fetter, A. K. (2020) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-020-01109-6 · Cited by 14
“These fears are more than valid, as research has demonstrated race is a predictor of differential diagnosis among youth, with youth of color more likely to be diagnosed with disruptive behavior disorders and learning disabilities compared to white youth (Nguyen et al. 2007; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundEnhancing Instruction for English Learners in Response to Intervention Systems
Sanford, A. K., Brown, J. E., & Turner, M. (2012) · Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners · doi:10.56829/muvo.13.1.0780760121003732 · Cited by 15
Understanding When Teachers Disagree about Student Disability
Cooc, N. (2016) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362835.2016.1216849 · Cited by 14
Okoli, M. L., Ogbu, C. E., Enyi, C. O., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12592-4 · Cited by 13
The relationship between behavior at school entry and services received in third grade
Kulkarni, T., & Sullivan, A. L. (2019) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22231 · Cited by 13
Maki, K. E., Barrett, C. A., Hajovsky, D. B., & Burns, M. K. (2020) · School Psychology · doi:10.1037/spq0000400 · Cited by 13
CritSEM: Advancing QuantCrit to Examine Racialized Resegregation in Special Education
Bell, N. S., Collier, Z. K., Vélez, V. N., & Ford, D. Y. (2024) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2024.2408538 · Cited by 17
“…of studies and reports, including by the Office for Civil Rights, researchers claim that Black and Latinx students are underrepresented in special education (Morgan, Farkas, Cook, et al., 2017; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, et al., 2017; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011; Wiley et al., 2013).”
Kangas, S. E. N., & Schissel, J. L. (2021) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2021.100927 · Cited by 12
Rasmussen, N. D., & Raskin, C. F. (2021) · Journal of Research on Leadership Education · doi:10.1177/19427751211069149 · Cited by 17
“Many studies show that Black students are overrepresented in school discipline (Gage et al., 2019; Huang, 2018; Young, Young et al., 2018) and special education (Artiles et al., 2010; Shifrer et al., 2011) and underrepresented in gifted or honors programs (Anderson, 2020; Lamb et al., 2019).”
BackgroundWang, G., Han, A., Zhang, G.-B., Xu, N., Xie, G.-D., Chen, L.-R., & Su, P. (2019) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.10.010 · Cited by 12
Multivariate analysis of variance for multilevel data: a simulation study comparing methods
Finch, W. H. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1718058 · Cited by 12
School Climate and the Latino-White Achievement Gap
Leavitt, R. R., & Hess, R. S. (2017) · Leadership and Policy in Schools · doi:10.1080/15700763.2017.1384498 · Cited by 12
On the diagnosis of learning disabilities in the Austrian school system
Krammer, M., Gebhardt, M., Rossmann, P., et al. (2014) · Alter · doi:10.1016/j.alter.2013.11.001 · Cited by 11
García, S., Hall‐Lande, J., & Nye-Lengerman, K. (2019) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-019-00613-9 · Cited by 11
González, T., & Artiles, A. J. (2015) · Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) · Cited by 11
Margolis, A. E., Dranovsky, A., Pagliaccio, D., Azad, G. F., Rauh, V., & Herbstman, J. B. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14137 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Shifrer, D., Muller, C., & Callahan, R.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Shifrer, Dara
- Venue
- Journal of Learning Disabilities
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 246-257
- ISSN
- 0022-2194 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4780
- PMC
- PMC4133990
- OpenAlex
- W2111405197
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 8.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Learning Disabilities (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0834177, 5 T32 HD007081, 5 R24 HD042849, 0965444)
- University of Texas at Austin (R24HD042849, 5 R24 HD042849, 5 T32 HD007081)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24HD042849, T32HD007081)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- learning disabilities, disproportionality, special education identification, race, socioeconomic status, language minority students, African American students, Hispanic students, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, gender differences, academic accommodations
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Black or African American, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Language, Learning Disabilities, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Social Class, United States, Multivariate Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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