The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 20 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Working inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom
Open accessAbstract
'Inside the Black Box' (Phi Delta Kappan, October 1998) summarized research evidence that showed that improving the quality of teachers' day-to-day classroom assessment could have substantial impact on students' learning. Here we report on one study that has attempted to put this into practice with 24 secondary school mathematics and science teachers in England. Through the use of improved questioning techniques, feedback focusing on how to improve rather than grading, and involving students in peer-assessment and self-assessment, teachers found that the motivation and attitudes of their students improved, and the students achieved higher scores on externally set tests and examinations than other students at the same schools.
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61 Own interpretation · 23 No basis given · 14 No full text of the sources · 5 Own result · 3 Not checked yet · 1 Sources not found · 1 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the nineteen teachers on whom we had reliable data, the average effect size was around 0.3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The control classes and input ability measures adequately control for pre-existing differences, so the measured effect sizes reflect the project's impact.
- Rests on an assumption: The varied output measures used by teachers validly measure learning gains relevant to the project.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pupils also became much more aware of when they were learning, and when they were not.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The teachers also shift in their role, from presenters of content to leaders of an exploration and development of ideas in which all pupils are involved.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Observations made in several English classrooms saw children engaged in peer assessment apply lessons learned during this activity to their own work.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results often surprise teachers, but those who have abandoned the giving of marks find that their experience confirms the findings: pupils do engage more productively in improving their work.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the KMOFAP classrooms, as the teachers came to listen more attentively to the pupils' responses, they began to appreciate more fully that learning was not a process of passive reception of knowledge, but one in which the learners were active in creating their own understandings.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Changes with the KMOFAP teachers came slowly and steadily, as experience developed and confidence grew in the use of the various strategies for enriching feedback and interaction.”
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In the paper
“The effect of the innovations implemented by our teachers was to change the 'classroom contract' between the teacher and the pupil-the rules, usually implicit, that govern the behaviours that are expected and seen as legitimate by teachers and pupils.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first was that the assessment methods that teachers use are not effective in promoting good learning.”
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many teachers do not plan and conduct classroom dialogue in ways that might help pupils to learn.”
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 50
- It may state two separate claims as one. 42
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whilst this has amply confirmed the original proposals, it has also added a wealth of new findings which are both practical and authentic.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is equivalent to just under half of a level at key stage 2, just over half a level at key stage 3, and just over half a grade at GCSE.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils came to understand what counted as good work through exemplification.Sometimes this was done through focused whole-class discussion around a particular example; at others it was achieved through pupils using criteria to assess the work of their peers.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“teachers learnt more about the pre-knowledge of their pupils, and about any gaps and mis-conceptions in that knowledge, so that their next moves could address the learners' real needs.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Initial fears about how pupils might react turned out to be unjustified, and neither parents nor OFSTED inspectors have reacted adversely.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where such changes have been made, experience has shown that pupils become more active as participants, and come to realise that learning may depend less on their capacity to spot the right answer and more on their readiness to express and discuss their own understanding.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite these differences, experience has shown that the generic skills that have been developed do apply across subjects.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increasing the wait time can lead to more pupils being involved in question and answer discussions, and to an increase in the length of their replies.”
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those that are the most successful are those rich tasks which provide pupils with an opportunity either to extend their understanding of a concept within the text or to 'scaffold' their ideas before writing.Characteristically these include small group and pair work, the reflections often being fed back into a whole class discussion.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Five of the schools in the KMOFAP project have, following the experience of their science and mathematics teachers, modified their policies to allow comment only marking; for two of these the modification was that no marks or grades be given on homework throughout the school.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings presented here are based on the observations and records of visits to classrooms by the King's team, records of meetings of the whole group of teachers, interviews with and writing by the teachers themselves, and a few discussions with pupil groups.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Teachers' self-reports, written pieces, and project observations reliably reflect classroom practice and its effects.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of this makes us confident that our general findings will be of value to all, although some important details may differ between different age groups and different subjects.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The contexts of the KMOFAP project are sufficiently similar to other subjects, phases, and schools for its general findings to apply to all.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here again, the published evidence gave a clear and positive answer, presenting a detailed picture which identified three main problems.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is, however, more involved because comments only become useful feedback if pupils use them to guide further work, so new procedures are needed:”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This linkage can help in the development of the skills and the detachment needed for effective self-assessment.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Peer work is also valuable because the interchange will be in language that pupils themselves would naturally use, and because pupils learn by taking the roles of teachers and examiners of others (Sadler, 1998):”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sadler, 1998 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The better the quality of the task the better the quality of the interventions.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aftermath of tests can also be an occasion for formative work.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time it can enhance pupils' skills and strategies for effective learning.”
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, after a while it became clear that these generic strategies could go only so far.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils' reflection about their understanding can also be used to inform future teachingtheir feedback can indicate where more time needs to be spent on some topics and where it can be saved on others.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Research experiments have established that, whilst pupils' learning can be advanced by feedback through comments, the giving of marks-or grades-has a negative effect in that pupils ignore comments when marks are also given (Butler, 1988).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butler, 1988 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, the provision of comments to pupils helps parents to focus on the learning issues rather than on trying to interpret a mark or grade.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to this advantage, peer-assessment is also valuable in placing the work in the hands of the pupils.The teacher can be free to observe and reflect on what is happening and to frame helpful interventions:”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The last sentence of this quotation brings out an important point-when pupils do not understand an explanation, they are likely to interrupt a fellow pupil when they would not interrupt a teacher.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Differences between learning tasks can be understood in terms of a spectrum.At one end are 'closed' tasks with a single well defined outcome, at the other are 'open' tasks with a wide range of acceptable outcomes.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main point here is that peer and self-assessment make unique contributions to the development of pupils' learning-they secure aims that cannot be achieved in any other way.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practices of self and peer-assessment can be applied to help pupils prepare for examinations, for example in tackling the following problem:”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choosing a good question requires a detailed knowledge of the subject, but this is not the knowledge that is gained from advanced study in a subject.”
- Also stated in: § EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate · plain
“A high level of subject qualification is less important than a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles of the subject, an understanding of the kinds of difficulties that pupils might have, and the creativity to think up questions which can stimulate productive thinking.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For such peer-group work to succeed, many pupils will need guidance about how to behave in groups, e.g. in listening to one another and taking turns.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Preparation of test questions calls for, and so develops, an overview of the topic:”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In more open exercises, as in investigations of the application of mathematical thinking to everyday problems, there may be a variety of good solutions; then an understanding of the criteria of quality is harder to achieve and may require an iteration in discussion between examples and the abstract criteria which they exemplify.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These traffic lights then form the basis of a revision plan.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Implementation of such reforms can change the attitudes of both teachers and pupils to written work: the assessment of pupils' work will be seen less as a competitive and summative judgement and more as a distinctive step in the process of learning”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We had, after all, stressed that feedback functioned formatively only if the information fed back to the learner was EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate used by the learner in improving performance.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Engaging in peer-and self-assessment is much more than just checking for errors or weaknesses.It involves making explicit what is normally implicit, and thus requires the pupils to be active in their learning.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A second important function of peer-and self-assessment was brought out by Sadler (1989), who argued that criteria alone are unhelpful in judging the quality of a piece of work or in guiding progression because there will always be too many variables.The key lies in knowing how to interpret the criteria in any particular case-which involves 'guild knowledge'.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sadler (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“they can all be used for tests where teachers have control over the setting and the marking, but their application may be more limited for tests where the teacher has little or no control.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pupils told that feedback ' …will help you to learn' learn more than those told that 'how you do tells us how smart you are and what grades you'll get'; the difference is greatest for low attainers (Newman & Schwager, 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Newman & Schwager, 1995 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A comprehensive review of research studies of feedback showed that feedback improved performance in 60% of them.In the cases where it was not helpful, the feedback turned out to be merely a judgment or grading with no indication of how to improve (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kluger & DeNisi, 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The key to effective learning is to then find ways to help pupils restructure their knowledge to build in new and more powerful ideas.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the general principles of formative assessment apply across all subjects, the ways in which they manifest themselves in different subjects may differ.We have encountered such differences in making comparisons between teachers of mathematics, science, and English.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Insofar as they do so they begin to develop an overview of that work so that it becomes possible for them to manage and control it for themselves: in other words, they are developing the capacity to work at a meta-cognitive level.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Those given feedback as marks are likely to see it as a way to compare themselves with others (ego-involvement), those given only comments see it as helping them to improve (task-involvement): the latter group out-perform the former (Butler, 1987).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butler, 1987 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Put simply, it became clear that, no matter what the pressure to achieve good test and examination scores, learning cannot be done for the pupil; it has to be done by the pupil.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central point here is that, to be effective, feedback should cause thinking to take place.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, self-assessment will only happen if teachers help their pupils, particularly the low-attainers, to develop the skill.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In a competitive system, low attainers attribute their performance to lack of 'ability', high attainers to their effort; in a task oriented system, all attribute to effort, and learning is improved, particularly amongst low attainers (Craven et al. 1991).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Craven et al. 1991 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Teachers acquire this through assessing pupils' work and it is this process which allows them to differentiate between grades and gain a sense of how progression is achieved.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, in varying measure, the guidance needed for these two types of learning work will be needed in all subjects.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it is unrealistic to expect teachers and pupils' to practice such separation, so the challenge is to achieve a more positive relationship between the two.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A numerical mark does not tell pupil how to improve their work, so an opportunity to enhance their learning has been lost.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The point of this is to stimulate the pupils to reflect on where they feel their learning is secure, which they mark green, and where they need to concentrate their efforts, in amber and red.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It can focus pupils' attention on their 'ability' rather than on the importance of effort, damaging the self-esteem of low attainers and leading to problems of 'learned helplessness' (Dweck 1986).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dweck 1986 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again peer-and self-assessment are intimately linked.”
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By active involvement in the test process, pupils can see that they can be beneficiaries rather than victims of testing, because tests can help them improve their learning.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“what the teachers needed was to be able to give their pupils feedback that they knew in advance was going to be useful.To do that they needed to build up models of how pupils learn.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such activities not only provide pupils with a chance to develop their understanding through talk, they also provide the teacher with the opportunity to give feedback during the course of a lesson through further questioning and guidance.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Peer marking of test papers can be helpful, as with normal written work, and is particularly useful if pupils are required first to formulate a mark scheme, an exercise which focuses attention on criteria of quality relevant to their productions.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many who have tried to develop self-assessment skills have found that the first and most difficult task is to get pupils to think of their work in terms of a set of goals.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning is not just a cognitive exercise: it involves the whole person.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tasks in English are mainly at the open end, e.g. the writing of a poem, but there are closed components e.g. for grammatical or genre conventions.Tasks in (say) mathematics are more often closed, but applications of mathematics to everyday problems can require open-ended evaluations.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such feedback can enhance learning, both directly through the effort that can ensue, and indirectly by supporting the motivation to invest such effort.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In English, peer-and self-assessment have a long history.It follows from the nature of the subject and the open outcome of many of the tasks characteristically set, that they are EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate central to one of its overall aims-which is to enhance the critical judgement of the pupils.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again this type of work is not uncommon in English, the skill being to make the task sufficiently structured to scaffold learning but not so tightly defined as to limit thinking.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This can take time and practice:”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Policies can actually, or by interpretation, constrain use of formative assessment.A notable example would be a policy that, by demanding that a mark or grade be given on every piece of homework, prevents the serious use of comments.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A second principle is that the learning environment envisaged requires a classroom culture that may well be unfamiliar and disconcerting for both teachers and pupils.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another example would be that a target setting system that required very frequent review would inhibit any change in learning methods which might slow down immediate 'progress' in order to produce medium to long term gains in learning skills.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It follows that support, evaluation, and subsequent dissemination of innovation in assessment for learning will only be planned in a coherent way if responsibility for strategic oversight of the development is assigned to a member of the school leadership team.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our experience supports the view that to realise the promise of formative assessment by leaving a few keen individuals to get on with it would be unfair to them, whilst to do it by a policy requiring all staff immediately to change their personal roles and styles in their classrooms would be absurd.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The contexts of the KMOFAP project are sufficiently similar to other subjects, phases, and schools for its general findings to apply to all.
“All of this makes us confident that our general findings will be of value to all, although some important details may differ between different age groups and different subjects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The control classes and input ability measures adequately control for pre-existing differences, so the measured effect sizes reflect the project's impact.
“Where the project and the control classes were not strictly parallel, we controlled for possible differences in EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate ability by the use of 'input' measures, such as scores on the NFER's Cognitive Abilities Test, or school test scores from the previous year.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The varied output measures used by teachers validly measure learning gains relevant to the project.
“Each teacher decided what was to be the 'output' measure for their class.For year 11 classes this was generally the GCSE grades achieved, and for year 9 classes it was generally the score or level achieved in the national curriculum tests.For other classes, a variety of measures were used including end-of-module-test scores and marks on the school's end-of-year exams.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers' self-reports, written pieces, and project observations reliably reflect classroom practice and its effects.
“The findings presented here are based on the observations and records of visits to classrooms by the King's team, records of meetings of the whole group of teachers, interviews with and writing by the teachers themselves, and a few discussions with pupil groups.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe they can achieve something.
“Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe that they can achieve something.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many pupils acquire alternative conceptions in science outside school, and these are well documented.
“However, outside school, many pupils acquire different ideas.”
“Many of these 'alternative conceptions' can be anticipated for they have been well documented.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mere presentation of the correct scientific view is ineffective.
“What has also been documented is that mere presentation of the 'correct' view has been shown to be ineffective.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
“Our experiences in the project all point to the need to re-think a teacher's core aimenhancing pupils' learning.”
Citations
Cites
Assessment and Classroom Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050102 · Cited by 8,152 · cited 1×
“evidence published in over 250 articles by researchers from several countries.(2) Few initiatives in education have had such a strong body of evidence to support a claim to raise standards.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMotivational processes affecting learning.
Dweck, C. S. (1986) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1040 · Cited by 6,971
(1999) · Cited by 6,308
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254 · Cited by 5,882
Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems
Sadler, D. R. (1989) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00117714 · Cited by 4,285
Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2010) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/003172171009200119 · Cited by 4,231
Self-citation(2003) · Cited by 1,586
Self-citationFormative Assessment: Revisiting the Territory
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Butler, R. (1987) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.474 · Cited by 690
BUTLER, R. (1988) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00874.x · Cited by 536 · cited 1×
“grades has a negative effect, in that students ignore comments when marks are also given.(5) These results often surprise teachers, but those who have abandoned the giving of marks discover that their experience confirms the findings: students do engage more productively in improving their work.”
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Facilitating Elaborative Learning Through Guided Student-Generated Questioning
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EFFECTIVE TEACHERS OF NUMERACY
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Student study techniques and the generation effect.
Foos, P. W., Mora, J. J., & Tkacz, S. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.4.567 · Cited by 121
Students’ Help Seeking During Problem Solving: Effects of Grade, Goal, and Prior Achievement
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Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [1]1. Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for Learning: Beyond the Black Box. Cambridge: University of Cambridge School of Education.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Developing the theory of formative assessment
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009) · Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5 · Cited by 3,301
“Work with teachers to explore the practical applications of lessons distilled therefrom (Black et al. 2002, P. Black (*) Department of Education and Professional Studies, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK e-mail: paul.black@kcl.ac.uk D. Wiliam…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationWhat is assessment for learning
Wiliam, D. (2011) · Studies in Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2011.03.001 · Cited by 1,282
Self-citationLearning to Teach Argumentation: Research and development in the science classroom
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Students' questions: a potential resource for teaching and learning science
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“In this regard, self-questioning may also stimulate students to self-evaluate and monitor the status of their understanding, as well as help them to redirect their use of learning strategies – strategies that are essential to use assessment formatively (Black et al., 2002).”
BackgroundClassroom assessment and pedagogy
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2018) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2018.1441807 · Cited by 1,133
“In subsequent work (Black et al. 2002, 2003) the practical implementations of various formative assessment practices were explored with and by teachers: the findings of this work did produce explicit guidance to help teachers develop their use of formative assessment.”
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Venue
- Phi Delta Kappan
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-09
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 8-21
- ISSN
- 0031-7217 (ISSN-L)
- 1940-6487
- OpenAlex
- W2136326226
- Cited by
- 1,323
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 86 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 80 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 188.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Phi Delta Kappan (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Online (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- IOE EPrints (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- OpenGrey (Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Nuffield Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- assessment for learning, classroom assessment, questioning strategies, feedback, peer assessment, self-assessment, student motivation, student attitudes, high school mathematics, secondary school science, academic performance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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