The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 20 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Working inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom
Open accessAbstract
'Inside the Black Box' (Phi Delta Kappan, October 1998) summarized research evidence that showed that improving the quality of teachers' day-to-day classroom assessment could have substantial impact on students' learning. Here we report on one study that has attempted to put this into practice with 24 secondary school mathematics and science teachers in England. Through the use of improved questioning techniques, feedback focusing on how to improve rather than grading, and involving students in peer-assessment and self-assessment, teachers found that the motivation and attitudes of their students improved, and the students achieved higher scores on externally set tests and examinations than other students at the same schools.
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61 Own interpretation · 23 No basis given · 14 No full text of the sources · 5 Own result · 3 Not checked yet · 1 Sources not found · 1 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the nineteen teachers on whom we had reliable data, the average effect size was around 0.3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The control classes and input ability measures adequately control for pre-existing differences, so the measured effect sizes reflect the project's impact.
- Rests on an assumption: The varied output measures used by teachers validly measure learning gains relevant to the project.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pupils also became much more aware of when they were learning, and when they were not.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The teachers also shift in their role, from presenters of content to leaders of an exploration and development of ideas in which all pupils are involved.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Observations made in several English classrooms saw children engaged in peer assessment apply lessons learned during this activity to their own work.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results often surprise teachers, but those who have abandoned the giving of marks find that their experience confirms the findings: pupils do engage more productively in improving their work.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the KMOFAP classrooms, as the teachers came to listen more attentively to the pupils' responses, they began to appreciate more fully that learning was not a process of passive reception of knowledge, but one in which the learners were active in creating their own understandings.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Changes with the KMOFAP teachers came slowly and steadily, as experience developed and confidence grew in the use of the various strategies for enriching feedback and interaction.”
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In the paper
“The effect of the innovations implemented by our teachers was to change the 'classroom contract' between the teacher and the pupil-the rules, usually implicit, that govern the behaviours that are expected and seen as legitimate by teachers and pupils.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first was that the assessment methods that teachers use are not effective in promoting good learning.”
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many teachers do not plan and conduct classroom dialogue in ways that might help pupils to learn.”
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 50
- It may state two separate claims as one. 42
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whilst this has amply confirmed the original proposals, it has also added a wealth of new findings which are both practical and authentic.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is equivalent to just under half of a level at key stage 2, just over half a level at key stage 3, and just over half a grade at GCSE.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils came to understand what counted as good work through exemplification.Sometimes this was done through focused whole-class discussion around a particular example; at others it was achieved through pupils using criteria to assess the work of their peers.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“teachers learnt more about the pre-knowledge of their pupils, and about any gaps and mis-conceptions in that knowledge, so that their next moves could address the learners' real needs.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Initial fears about how pupils might react turned out to be unjustified, and neither parents nor OFSTED inspectors have reacted adversely.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where such changes have been made, experience has shown that pupils become more active as participants, and come to realise that learning may depend less on their capacity to spot the right answer and more on their readiness to express and discuss their own understanding.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite these differences, experience has shown that the generic skills that have been developed do apply across subjects.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increasing the wait time can lead to more pupils being involved in question and answer discussions, and to an increase in the length of their replies.”
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those that are the most successful are those rich tasks which provide pupils with an opportunity either to extend their understanding of a concept within the text or to 'scaffold' their ideas before writing.Characteristically these include small group and pair work, the reflections often being fed back into a whole class discussion.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Five of the schools in the KMOFAP project have, following the experience of their science and mathematics teachers, modified their policies to allow comment only marking; for two of these the modification was that no marks or grades be given on homework throughout the school.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings presented here are based on the observations and records of visits to classrooms by the King's team, records of meetings of the whole group of teachers, interviews with and writing by the teachers themselves, and a few discussions with pupil groups.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Teachers' self-reports, written pieces, and project observations reliably reflect classroom practice and its effects.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of this makes us confident that our general findings will be of value to all, although some important details may differ between different age groups and different subjects.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The contexts of the KMOFAP project are sufficiently similar to other subjects, phases, and schools for its general findings to apply to all.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here again, the published evidence gave a clear and positive answer, presenting a detailed picture which identified three main problems.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is, however, more involved because comments only become useful feedback if pupils use them to guide further work, so new procedures are needed:”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This linkage can help in the development of the skills and the detachment needed for effective self-assessment.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Peer work is also valuable because the interchange will be in language that pupils themselves would naturally use, and because pupils learn by taking the roles of teachers and examiners of others (Sadler, 1998):”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sadler, 1998 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The better the quality of the task the better the quality of the interventions.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aftermath of tests can also be an occasion for formative work.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time it can enhance pupils' skills and strategies for effective learning.”
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, after a while it became clear that these generic strategies could go only so far.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils' reflection about their understanding can also be used to inform future teachingtheir feedback can indicate where more time needs to be spent on some topics and where it can be saved on others.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Research experiments have established that, whilst pupils' learning can be advanced by feedback through comments, the giving of marks-or grades-has a negative effect in that pupils ignore comments when marks are also given (Butler, 1988).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butler, 1988 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, the provision of comments to pupils helps parents to focus on the learning issues rather than on trying to interpret a mark or grade.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to this advantage, peer-assessment is also valuable in placing the work in the hands of the pupils.The teacher can be free to observe and reflect on what is happening and to frame helpful interventions:”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The last sentence of this quotation brings out an important point-when pupils do not understand an explanation, they are likely to interrupt a fellow pupil when they would not interrupt a teacher.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Differences between learning tasks can be understood in terms of a spectrum.At one end are 'closed' tasks with a single well defined outcome, at the other are 'open' tasks with a wide range of acceptable outcomes.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main point here is that peer and self-assessment make unique contributions to the development of pupils' learning-they secure aims that cannot be achieved in any other way.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practices of self and peer-assessment can be applied to help pupils prepare for examinations, for example in tackling the following problem:”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Choosing a good question requires a detailed knowledge of the subject, but this is not the knowledge that is gained from advanced study in a subject.”
- Also stated in: § EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate · plain
“A high level of subject qualification is less important than a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles of the subject, an understanding of the kinds of difficulties that pupils might have, and the creativity to think up questions which can stimulate productive thinking.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For such peer-group work to succeed, many pupils will need guidance about how to behave in groups, e.g. in listening to one another and taking turns.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Preparation of test questions calls for, and so develops, an overview of the topic:”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In more open exercises, as in investigations of the application of mathematical thinking to everyday problems, there may be a variety of good solutions; then an understanding of the criteria of quality is harder to achieve and may require an iteration in discussion between examples and the abstract criteria which they exemplify.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These traffic lights then form the basis of a revision plan.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Implementation of such reforms can change the attitudes of both teachers and pupils to written work: the assessment of pupils' work will be seen less as a competitive and summative judgement and more as a distinctive step in the process of learning”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We had, after all, stressed that feedback functioned formatively only if the information fed back to the learner was EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate used by the learner in improving performance.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Engaging in peer-and self-assessment is much more than just checking for errors or weaknesses.It involves making explicit what is normally implicit, and thus requires the pupils to be active in their learning.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A second important function of peer-and self-assessment was brought out by Sadler (1989), who argued that criteria alone are unhelpful in judging the quality of a piece of work or in guiding progression because there will always be too many variables.The key lies in knowing how to interpret the criteria in any particular case-which involves 'guild knowledge'.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sadler (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“they can all be used for tests where teachers have control over the setting and the marking, but their application may be more limited for tests where the teacher has little or no control.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pupils told that feedback ' …will help you to learn' learn more than those told that 'how you do tells us how smart you are and what grades you'll get'; the difference is greatest for low attainers (Newman & Schwager, 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Newman & Schwager, 1995 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A comprehensive review of research studies of feedback showed that feedback improved performance in 60% of them.In the cases where it was not helpful, the feedback turned out to be merely a judgment or grading with no indication of how to improve (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kluger & DeNisi, 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The key to effective learning is to then find ways to help pupils restructure their knowledge to build in new and more powerful ideas.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the general principles of formative assessment apply across all subjects, the ways in which they manifest themselves in different subjects may differ.We have encountered such differences in making comparisons between teachers of mathematics, science, and English.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Insofar as they do so they begin to develop an overview of that work so that it becomes possible for them to manage and control it for themselves: in other words, they are developing the capacity to work at a meta-cognitive level.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Those given feedback as marks are likely to see it as a way to compare themselves with others (ego-involvement), those given only comments see it as helping them to improve (task-involvement): the latter group out-perform the former (Butler, 1987).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butler, 1987 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Put simply, it became clear that, no matter what the pressure to achieve good test and examination scores, learning cannot be done for the pupil; it has to be done by the pupil.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central point here is that, to be effective, feedback should cause thinking to take place.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, self-assessment will only happen if teachers help their pupils, particularly the low-attainers, to develop the skill.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In a competitive system, low attainers attribute their performance to lack of 'ability', high attainers to their effort; in a task oriented system, all attribute to effort, and learning is improved, particularly amongst low attainers (Craven et al. 1991).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Craven et al. 1991 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Teachers acquire this through assessing pupils' work and it is this process which allows them to differentiate between grades and gain a sense of how progression is achieved.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, in varying measure, the guidance needed for these two types of learning work will be needed in all subjects.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it is unrealistic to expect teachers and pupils' to practice such separation, so the challenge is to achieve a more positive relationship between the two.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A numerical mark does not tell pupil how to improve their work, so an opportunity to enhance their learning has been lost.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The point of this is to stimulate the pupils to reflect on where they feel their learning is secure, which they mark green, and where they need to concentrate their efforts, in amber and red.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It can focus pupils' attention on their 'ability' rather than on the importance of effort, damaging the self-esteem of low attainers and leading to problems of 'learned helplessness' (Dweck 1986).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dweck 1986 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again peer-and self-assessment are intimately linked.”
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By active involvement in the test process, pupils can see that they can be beneficiaries rather than victims of testing, because tests can help them improve their learning.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“what the teachers needed was to be able to give their pupils feedback that they knew in advance was going to be useful.To do that they needed to build up models of how pupils learn.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such activities not only provide pupils with a chance to develop their understanding through talk, they also provide the teacher with the opportunity to give feedback during the course of a lesson through further questioning and guidance.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Peer marking of test papers can be helpful, as with normal written work, and is particularly useful if pupils are required first to formulate a mark scheme, an exercise which focuses attention on criteria of quality relevant to their productions.”
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many who have tried to develop self-assessment skills have found that the first and most difficult task is to get pupils to think of their work in terms of a set of goals.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning is not just a cognitive exercise: it involves the whole person.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tasks in English are mainly at the open end, e.g. the writing of a poem, but there are closed components e.g. for grammatical or genre conventions.Tasks in (say) mathematics are more often closed, but applications of mathematics to everyday problems can require open-ended evaluations.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such feedback can enhance learning, both directly through the effort that can ensue, and indirectly by supporting the motivation to invest such effort.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In English, peer-and self-assessment have a long history.It follows from the nature of the subject and the open outcome of many of the tasks characteristically set, that they are EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate central to one of its overall aims-which is to enhance the critical judgement of the pupils.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again this type of work is not uncommon in English, the skill being to make the task sufficiently structured to scaffold learning but not so tightly defined as to limit thinking.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This can take time and practice:”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Policies can actually, or by interpretation, constrain use of formative assessment.A notable example would be a policy that, by demanding that a mark or grade be given on every piece of homework, prevents the serious use of comments.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A second principle is that the learning environment envisaged requires a classroom culture that may well be unfamiliar and disconcerting for both teachers and pupils.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another example would be that a target setting system that required very frequent review would inhibit any change in learning methods which might slow down immediate 'progress' in order to produce medium to long term gains in learning skills.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It follows that support, evaluation, and subsequent dissemination of innovation in assessment for learning will only be planned in a coherent way if responsibility for strategic oversight of the development is assigned to a member of the school leadership team.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our experience supports the view that to realise the promise of formative assessment by leaving a few keen individuals to get on with it would be unfair to them, whilst to do it by a policy requiring all staff immediately to change their personal roles and styles in their classrooms would be absurd.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The contexts of the KMOFAP project are sufficiently similar to other subjects, phases, and schools for its general findings to apply to all.
“All of this makes us confident that our general findings will be of value to all, although some important details may differ between different age groups and different subjects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The control classes and input ability measures adequately control for pre-existing differences, so the measured effect sizes reflect the project's impact.
“Where the project and the control classes were not strictly parallel, we controlled for possible differences in EMBARGOED UNTIL JULY 2 nd © Please do not copy or circulate ability by the use of 'input' measures, such as scores on the NFER's Cognitive Abilities Test, or school test scores from the previous year.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The varied output measures used by teachers validly measure learning gains relevant to the project.
“Each teacher decided what was to be the 'output' measure for their class.For year 11 classes this was generally the GCSE grades achieved, and for year 9 classes it was generally the score or level achieved in the national curriculum tests.For other classes, a variety of measures were used including end-of-module-test scores and marks on the school's end-of-year exams.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers' self-reports, written pieces, and project observations reliably reflect classroom practice and its effects.
“The findings presented here are based on the observations and records of visits to classrooms by the King's team, records of meetings of the whole group of teachers, interviews with and writing by the teachers themselves, and a few discussions with pupil groups.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe they can achieve something.
“Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe that they can achieve something.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many pupils acquire alternative conceptions in science outside school, and these are well documented.
“However, outside school, many pupils acquire different ideas.”
“Many of these 'alternative conceptions' can be anticipated for they have been well documented.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mere presentation of the correct scientific view is ineffective.
“What has also been documented is that mere presentation of the 'correct' view has been shown to be ineffective.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The experiences and reports from the KMOFAP project teachers are representative enough to support general conclusions about classroom practice.
“Our experiences in the project all point to the need to re-think a teacher's core aimenhancing pupils' learning.”
Citations
Cites
Assessment and Classroom Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050102 · Cited by 8,152 · cited 1×
“evidence published in over 250 articles by researchers from several countries.(2) Few initiatives in education have had such a strong body of evidence to support a claim to raise standards.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMotivational processes affecting learning.
Dweck, C. S. (1986) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1040 · Cited by 6,971
(1999) · Cited by 6,308
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254 · Cited by 5,882
Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems
Sadler, D. R. (1989) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00117714 · Cited by 4,285
Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2010) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/003172171009200119 · Cited by 4,231
Self-citation(2003) · Cited by 1,586
Self-citationFormative Assessment: Revisiting the Territory
Sadler, D. R. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050104 · Cited by 1,107
Butler, R. (1987) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.474 · Cited by 690
BUTLER, R. (1988) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00874.x · Cited by 536 · cited 1×
“grades has a negative effect, in that students ignore comments when marks are also given.(5) These results often surprise teachers, but those who have abandoned the giving of marks discover that their experience confirms the findings: students do engage more productively in improving their work.”
Result
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [1]1. Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for Learning: Beyond the Black Box. Cambridge: University of Cambridge School of Education.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Developing the theory of formative assessment
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009) · Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5 · Cited by 3,301
“Work with teachers to explore the practical applications of lessons distilled therefrom (Black et al. 2002, P. Black (*) Department of Education and Professional Studies, King’s College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK e-mail: paul.black@kcl.ac.uk D. Wiliam…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationWhat is assessment for learning
Wiliam, D. (2011) · Studies in Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2011.03.001 · Cited by 1,282
Self-citationLearning to Teach Argumentation: Research and development in the science classroom
Simon, S., Erduran, S., & Osborne, J. F. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500336957 · Cited by 806
Students' questions: a potential resource for teaching and learning science
Chin, C., & Osborne, J. (2008) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057260701828101 · Cited by 747
“In this regard, self-questioning may also stimulate students to self-evaluate and monitor the status of their understanding, as well as help them to redirect their use of learning strategies – strategies that are essential to use assessment formatively (Black et al., 2002).”
BackgroundClassroom assessment and pedagogy
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2018) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2018.1441807 · Cited by 1,133
“In subsequent work (Black et al. 2002, 2003) the practical implementations of various formative assessment practices were explored with and by teachers: the findings of this work did produce explicit guidance to help teachers develop their use of formative assessment.”
Self-citationStronge, J. H., Ward, T. J., & Grant, L. W. (2011) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487111404241 · Cited by 661
“…Tucker, & Hindman, 2008 Student assessment Assessment for understanding P. Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004; Cotton, 2000; Yesseldyke & Bolt, 2007 Feedback P. Black et al., 2004; Chappuis & Stiggins, 2002; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Matsumura, Patthey-Chavez, Valeds, & Garnier, 2002”
The teacher's role in promoting collaborative dialogue in the classroom
Webb, N. M. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709908x380772 · Cited by 618
Teachers' reflections on cooperative learning: Issues of implementation
Gillies, R. M., & Boyle, M. (2009) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.034 · Cited by 578
“Moreover, feedback that focuses on what needs to be done can encourage students to believe that they can improve if they are willing to invest in the effort required (Black et al., 2004, p. 8).”
BackgroundInfluentialTeachers' summative practices and assessment for learning – tensions and synergies
Harlen, W. (2005) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1080/09585170500136093 · Cited by 403
Still no pedagogy? principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education
Alexander, R. J. (2004) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764042000183106 · Cited by 373
“…item here which has a recognisable empirical basis is the final one, which hints at the important ideas about assessment for learning and its implications for classroom talk which have come from Paul Black and his colleagues in the London King’s group (Black & Wiliam, 1999; Black et al., 2002).”
BackgroundFormative Assessment Techniques to Support Student Motivation and Achievement
Cauley, K. M., & McMillan, J. H. (2010) · The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas · doi:10.1080/00098650903267784 · Cited by 329
“They can also learn to self-assess from models provided by teachers (Black and Wiliam 1998b; Sadler 1989; Chappuis 2005) and by practicing peer assessment (Black et al. 2004; Leahy et al. 2005).”
OECD (2010) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/9789264086487-en · Cited by 418
Getting to the heart of authentic Assessment for Learning
Swaffield, S. (2011) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2011.582838 · Cited by 297
“In this project Black, Wiliam, and colleagues took the fi ndings from their review and worked intensively with a small number of teachers from six schools to see how the ideas from research converted into practice (Black et al. 2002, 2003).”
Classroom Assessment: Minute by Minute, Day by Day
Leahy, S., Lyon, C. J., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005) · IOE EPrints · Cited by 304
Self-citationThe missing disciplinary substance of formative assessment
Coffey, J. E., Hammer, D., Levin, D., & Grant, T. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20440 · Cited by 308
Professional Community and Professional Development in the Learning-Centered School
Little, J. W. (2012) · doi:10.4324/9780203805879-9 · Cited by 287
Volante, L., & Fazio, X. E. (2007) · Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l éducation · doi:10.2307/20466661 · Cited by 285
DeWitt, J., & Archer, L. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2015.1071899 · Cited by 268
Affordances of ICT in science learning: implications for an integrated pedagogy
Webb, M. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500038520 · Cited by 257
“The overall change was that questioning became a more significant part of teaching and dialogue became more important in learning (Black et al. 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialAndrade, H., Du, Y., & Wang, X. (2008) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2008.00118.x · Cited by 248
Quellmalz, E., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1168046 · Cited by 256
Heller, J. I., Daehler, K. R., Wong, N., Shinohara, M., & Miratrix, L. W. (2012) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21004 · Cited by 280
How Does Changing “One-Size-Fits-All” to Differentiated Instruction Affect Teaching?
Bondie, R. S., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x18821130 · Cited by 243
Wanner, T., & Palmer, E. (2018) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1427698 · Cited by 241
Assessment for Learning in the Classroom
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2012) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446250808.n2 · Cited by 241
“Tom, Riverside School (Black et al., 2002)”
MethodSelf-citationBeatty, I. D., & Gerace, W. J. (2009) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-008-9140-4 · Cited by 262
“FA can elicit richer classroom discourse and help students become more engaged and motivated (Gallagher, 2000), can help students become aware of the limits of their understanding and the actions they can take to progress (Ramaprasad, 1983; Sadler, 1989), and can catalyze significant teacher learning (Black et al., 20…”
BackgroundWebb, N. M., Nemer, K. M., & Ing, M. (2006) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1501_8 · Cited by 232
Opening up pathways : engagement in STEM across the primary-secondary school transition
Tytler, R., Osborne, J. F., Williams, G., Tytler, K., & Clark, J. C. (2008) · Figshare · Cited by 212
Developing a Theory of Formative Assessment
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2012) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446250808.n13 · Cited by 208
Self-citationMoving Toward a Comprehensive Assessment System: A Framework for Considering Interim Assessments
Perie, M., Marion, S. F., & Gong, B. (2009) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2009.00149.x · Cited by 214
Online Diagnostic Assessment in Support of Personalized Teaching and Learning: The eDia System
Csapó, B., & Molnár, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01522 · Cited by 256
“…different ways formative assessment is used in practice, but a common feature of these assessments is that they reflect students’ learning needs, facilitate understanding in a given context and provide students with immediate feedback (Black and Wiliam, 1998a,b; Black et al., 2004; Good, 2011).”
BackgroundJeronen, E. K., Palmberg, I., & Yli‐Panula, E. (2016) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci7010001 · Cited by 257
Teacher development and pupil voice
Flutter, J. (2007) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1080/09585170701589983 · Cited by 193
“…schools including, for example, peer mentoring schemes (Goodlad, 1995); pupils as researchers (Fielding & Bragg, 2003); pupils helping other pupils with their learning (Topping, 2001); personal learning plans (Bullock & Wikeley, 2004); and ‘assessment for learning’ approaches (Black et al., 2002).”
BackgroundStudent perceptions of classroom feedback
Gamlem, S. M., & Smith, K. (2013) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2012.749212 · Cited by 184
“Feedback is regarded as part of the crucial interaction between teacher and student(s) carried out for the purpose of furthering learning (Black et al. 2003, 2004; Brookhart 2008; Hattie and Timperley 2007; Hawe, Dixon, and Watson 2008; Smith and Higgins 2006).”
BackgroundResultvan Es, E. A., Cashen, M., Barnhart, T., & Auger, A. (2017) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2017.1317125 · Cited by 201
Seven Practices for Effective Learning
McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2005) · Cited by 173
Formative Feedback: Involving Students as Partners in Assessment to Enhance Learning
Fluckiger, J., y Vigil, Y. T., Pasco, R. J., & Danielson, K. E. (2010) · College Teaching · doi:10.1080/87567555.2010.484031 · Cited by 167
The Formative Purpose: Assessment Must First Promote Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2004) · Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1744-7984.2004.tb00047.x · Cited by 170
Self-citationPerspectives on the Integration of Technology and Assessment
Pellegrino, J. W., & Quellmalz, E. (2010) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2010.10782565 · Cited by 164
“…classroom practice factors, including alignment of assessments with state standards, quality of the feedback provided to students, involvement of students in self-reflection and action, and teachers making adjustments to their instruction based on the assessment results (Black et. al., 2004).”
MethodJaworski, B. (2003) · Educational Studies in Mathematics · doi:10.1023/b:educ.0000006160.91028.f0 · Cited by 159
“(Derek Black et al., 2002, p. 5) It seems that teachers’ reflection was closely related to the formative assessment inquiry in which the project was engaging as such quotations make evident.”
BackgroundTechnology Enhanced Formative Assessment for 21st Century Learning
Spector, J. M., Ifenthaler, D., Sampson, D. G., Yang, L., Mukama, E., Warusavitarana, A., Dona, K. L., Eichhorn, K., Fluck, A. E., Huang, R., et al. (2016) · NIE Digital Repository (National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University) · Cited by 158
Schellekens, L. H., Bok, H. G. J., de Jong, L. H., van der Schaaf, M. F., Kremer, W. D. J., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2021) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101094 · Cited by 229
Want students to engage? Contextualise graduate learning outcomes and assess for employability
Jorre, T. J. D. S., & Oliver, B. (2017) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2017.1339183 · Cited by 152
“…with assessment is well documented (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004; Boud & Falchikov, 2007; Gibbs, 2010; Ramsden, 2003) and there is ample research to support the implementation of ‘assessment for learning’ as a key pedagogy in higher education (review: Black et al., 2004).”
BackgroundTeaching socioscientific issues: classroom culture and students’ performances
Tal, T., & Kedmi, Y. (2006) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-006-9026-9 · Cited by 141
“The follow-up, 2004 article ‘‘Working Inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom’’ (Black et al., 2004) shows how teachers changed their practice and students changed their behavior so that everyone shares responsibility for the students’ learning.”
BackgroundVariation Theory and the Improvement of Teaching and Learning
Fung-Lo, M. L. 馮. (2012) · Cited by 139
Wallace, C. S., & Priestley, M. (2011) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2011.563447 · Cited by 137
“Self and peer assessment are two teaching strategies that are central to the implementation of AifL (Black et al. 2002).”
BackgroundCo-operative learning: what makes group-work work?
Slavin, R. E. (2010) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/9789264086487-9-en · Cited by 156
DeWitt, J., Archer, L., & Osborne, J. F. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.871659 · Cited by 136
Marshall, J. C., Smart, J., & Alston, D. M. (2016) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-016-9718-x · Cited by 155
Emerging Technologies in K–12 Education: A Future HCI Research Agenda
Mechelen, M. V., Smith, R. C., Schaper, M.-M., Tamashiro, M. A., Bilstrup, K.-E. K., Lunding, M. S., Petersen, M. G., & Iversen, O. S. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3569897 · Cited by 158
“Summative assessment serves the purpose of accountability, ranking or certifying competence [10].”
BackgroundAssessment for Learning in Physical Education: The What, Why and How
Chng, L., & Lund, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance · doi:10.1080/07303084.2018.1503119 · Cited by 124
“Black and Wiliam (1998) concluded that for AfL to be productive, students would be trained in self-assessment so that they understand the main purposes of their learning, and thereby grasp what they need to do to achieve. Scenario two was an example of self-assessment where the students recorded their own performance.…”
BackgroundInfluentialTHE DESIGN AND VALIDATION OF EQUIP: AN INSTRUMENT TO ASSESS INQUIRY-BASED INSTRUCTION
Marshall, J. C., Smart, J., & Horton, R. M. (2009) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-009-9174-y · Cited by 127
Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms
OECD (2005) · doi:10.1787/9789264007413-en · Cited by 123
Towards a learning-oriented assessment to improve students’ learning—a critical review of literature
Zeng, W., Huang, F., Yu, L., & Chen, S. (2018) · Educational Assessment Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-018-9281-9 · Cited by 157
Ng, E. M. W. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.002 · Cited by 133
Alberti, M. G., Suárez, F., Chiyón, I., & Feijóo, J. C. M. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11020059 · Cited by 126
“Despite its informal nature, or maybe because of it, formative assessment has proven to increase students’ achievement [21,22], so it should be boosted, not disregarded, in online environments to promote the engagement and involvement of students.”
BackgroundInvestigating Effective Feedback Practices for Pre‐service Teacher Education Students on Practicum
White, S. (2007) · Teaching Education · doi:10.1080/10476210701687591 · Cited by 116
Integrating Formative and Summative Assessment
Looney, J. (2011) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/5kghx3kbl734-en · Cited by 150
Wever, B. D., Keer, H. V., Schellens, T., & Valcke, M. (2008) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00292.x · Cited by 116
“Finally, explicit development of assessment skills can be called for, as suggested by McLoughlin and Luca (2002) and Black et al. (2004), who argue that students might need assistance in achieving the skills that come with more autonomy and responsibility. Falchikov and Boud (1989) point at two other possible explanat…”
BackgroundLesson Study development in England: from school networks to national policy
Dudley, P. (2011) · International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies · doi:10.1108/20468251211179722 · Cited by 115
Analyzing force concept inventory with item response theory
Wang, J., & Bao, L. (2010) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.3443565 · Cited by 111
Scaffolds or straitjackets? Critical moments in classroom discourse
Myhill *, D., & Warren, P. (2005) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/0013191042000274187 · Cited by 106
Teachers’ approaches to classroom assessment: a large-scale survey
DeLuca, C., Valiquette, A., Coombs, A., LaPointe-McEwan, D., & Luhanga, U. (2016) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2016.1244514 · Cited by 111
Cachia, R., Ferrari, A., Ala-Mutka, K., & Punie, Y. (2010) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.2791/52913 · Cited by 108
Baas, D., Castelijns, J., Vermeulen, M., Martens, R. L., & Segers, M. S. R. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12058 · Cited by 143
“Assessment activities support student learning when the derived information is used to adjust teaching and learning to better fit student needs (Black et al., 2004).”
BackgroundRole of the Teacher in Computer‐supported Collaborative Inquiry Learning
Urhahne, D., Schanze, S., Bell, T., Mansfield, A., & Holmes, J. (2009) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690802516967 · Cited by 105
“Teachers who conduct formative evaluation in the classroom, and therewith adapt the teaching to the students’ needs, produce significant and often substantial higher learning outcomes (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004; Black & Wiliam, 1998).”
BackgroundDeveloping Formative Teacher Assessment: Knowledge, Practice, and Change
Leung, C. (2004) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1207/s15434311laq0101_3 · Cited by 107
“…in this field has provided some examples of effective and practicable classroom strategies such as increasing wait time (for student answers), ways of asking questions and building up a whole class approach to exploring answer jointly (e.g., Black et al., 2002; Harlen & Winter, in press).”
BackgroundExploring the influence of learning progressions in two teacher communities
Furtak, E. M., & Heredia, S. C. (2014) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21156 · Cited by 102
The Nature and Value of Formative Assessment for Learning
Blackà, P. (2003) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/136548020300600304 · Cited by 105
“Th. concept In a recent publication for teachers (Black et al. 2002) we included the following extended definition of our idea of formative assessment : 8 9 Improving Schools Volume 6 Number 3 Autumn 2003 Assessment for learning is any assessment for which the first priority in its design and…”
BackgroundSelf-citationDigital Assessment Literacy — the Core Role of the Teacher in a Digital Environment
Eyal, L. (2012) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 98
Deep teaching in a college STEM classroom
Dewsbury, B. M. (2019) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-018-9891-z · Cited by 110
“Contemporary approaches to pedagogy matter to inclusiveness in that the continuous feedback and assessment of student progress encouraged by active pedagogy are central to their effectiveness (Black et al. 2004).”
BackgroundPeer and Self-Assessment in High Schools
Noonan, B., & Duncan, C. R. (2020) · doi:10.7275/a166-vm41 · Cited by 96
“This view supports that of Black and Wiliam (1998) who concluded that selfassessment is an essential component of formative assessment if it is to be used to improve student learning.”
BackgroundGotwals, A. W., & Birmingham, D. (2015) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-015-9461-2 · Cited by 108
“information to modify their teaching practices and provide focused feedback to students to improve their learning (Black et al. 2004).”
BackgroundMonteiro, V., Carvalho, C., & Santos, N. N. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.661736 · Cited by 97
How teachers value and practise professional learning
Pedder, D., James, M., & MacBeath, J. (2005) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671520500192985 · Cited by 95
“…from what is written and reported about assessment for learning (see Black & Wiliam, 1998a, b; Assessment Reform Group, 1999, 2002; Shepard, 2000; Black et al., 2002, 2003) that the approach involves a radical transformation of classroom teaching and learning processes and relationships, not…”
BackgroundStudent engagement and student self‐assessment: the REAL framework
Munns, G., & Woodward, H. (2006) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/09695940600703969 · Cited by 94
“The recognition of the value of self-assessment and the necessary interrelatedness of quality pedagogy and high performance learning are well documented (Newmann, 1998; Cumming & Maxwell, 1999; Black et al., 2002).”
BackgroundFactors Affecting Teachers’ Grading and Assessment Practices
Duncan, C. R., & Noonan, B. (2010) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/ajer.v53i1.55195 · Cited by 90
Different versions of assessment for learning in the subject of physical education
Tolgfors, B. (2018) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2018.1429589 · Cited by 83
“(Black et al. 2002, in the prefix, emphasis added) According to Chan, Hay, and Tinning (2011) assessment influences the teaching and learning process and defines its product, often referred to as the ‘backwash effect’.”
BackgroundBridging the educational research‐teaching practice gap
Anderson, T. R., & Schönborn, K. J. (2008) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.20209 · Cited by 89
Communicating aims and learning goals in physical education: part of a subject for learning?
Redelius, K., Quennerstedt, M., & Öhman, M. (2015) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2014.987745 · Cited by 115
“In line with this, the Swedish National Agency for Education (SKOLFS, 2011) emphasises the importance of a clear dialogue about the learning goals, where teachers are supposed to clarify and share learning intentions and give constant feedback to students (see also Black, 2004).”
BackgroundNg, E. M. W. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.03.015 · Cited by 87
The crucial role of motivation and emotion in classroom learning
Boekaerts, M. (2010) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/9789264086487-6-en · Cited by 99
Higher order thinking in chemistry curriculum and its assessment
Fensham, P. J., & Bellocchi, A. (2013) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2013.06.003 · Cited by 85
Taylor, M. W. (2012) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2012.710253 · Cited by 85
“…of best practices in mathematics teaching identified by existing research and practitioner experience (e.g. the use of formative assessment (e.g. Black et al. 2002), students talking about mathematics with each other (e.g. Schleppenbach et al. 2007), classroom discussion guided by students’…”
BackgroundBerry, R. (2008) · Hong Kong University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9789888052059 · Cited by 115
Teaching like an artist: the pedagogic identities and practices of artists in schools
Hall, C., Thomson, P., & Russell, L. (2007) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/01425690701505466 · Cited by 85
Assessment in Medical Education; What Are We Trying to Achieve?
Ferris, H. A., & Flynn, D. O. (2015) · International Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.5430/ijhe.v4n2p139 · Cited by 93
Volante, L., & Beckett, D. (2011) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 83
Creativity in Schools: A Survey of Teachers in EuropePreprint
Cachia, R., & Ferrari, A. (2010) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.2791/48818 · Cited by 84
Supporting Preservice Science Teachers' Ability to Attend and Respond to Student Thinking by Design
Kang, H., & Anderson, C. (2015) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21182 · Cited by 81
A Historical Perspective on Validity Arguments for Accountability Testing
Haertel, E. H., & Herman, J. L. (2005) · Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1744-7984.2005.00023.x · Cited by 82
Catalán, E. L., & Kirk, D. (2015) · European Physical Education Review · doi:10.1177/1356336x15590352 · Cited by 77
“This notion has been supported and developed by authors such as Black et al. (2002), Blanchard (2009), Carless (2010) and Sadler (2010), among others.”
BackgroundChallenges for information technology supporting educational assessment
Webb, M., Gibson, D., & Forkosh‐Baruch, A. (2013) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12033 · Cited by 87
Daly, A. J., Moolenaar, N. M., Der‐Martirosian, C., & Liou, Y. I. (2014) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811411600702 · Cited by 81
“As teachers engage in sharing and discussing knowledge regarding their instructional practice, it is likely that their knowledge and learning will be enhanced (Black et al., 2004).”
BackgroundHayward, L., Priestley, M., & Young, M. (2004) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/0305498042000260502 · Cited by 78
“It can be seen as an attempt to change and enhance the pedagogical practice of teachers in Scottish schools, through the development of formative assessment approaches which research (e.g. Black & William, 1998a; Black et al., 2002) suggests can improve learning and attainment.”
BackgroundInfluentialReporting the ‘education revolution’: MySchool.edu.au in the print media
Mockler, N. (2012) · Discourse Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education · doi:10.1080/01596306.2012.698860 · Cited by 75
Evaluating a large-scale implementation of Assessment for Learning in Sweden
Jönsson, A., Lundahl, C., & Holmgren, A. (2014) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2014.970612 · Cited by 78
“For instance, Black and Wiliam (1998) write that typical effect sizes of the formativeassessment experiments they reviewed were between .4 and .7. Wiliam and colleagues also present results from the KMOFAP, showing a general improvement in student performance corresponding to an effect size of .32 (Wiliam, Lee, Harris…”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning intentions and success criteria: learners' and teachers' views
Crichton, H., & McDaid, A. (2015) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1080/09585176.2015.1103278 · Cited by 78
Teacher learning communities and educational change in Scotland: The Highland experience
Priestley, M., Miller, K. H., Barrett, L., & Wallace, C. S. (2010) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/01411920903540698 · Cited by 74
“Early CPD tended to focus on strategies for formative assessment (in line with the approach taken by the KOMFAP project in England – see Black et al., 2002), although the programme subsequently expanded to encompass additional topics, for example work on the management of change, and the…”
BackgroundYin, Y., Tomita, M. K., & Shavelson, R. J. (2013) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.787556 · Cited by 78
Metadata
- Authors
- Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Venue
- Phi Delta Kappan
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-09
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 8-21
- ISSN
- 0031-7217 (ISSN-L)
- 1940-6487
- OpenAlex
- W2136326226
- Cited by
- 1,323
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 86 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 80 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 188.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Phi Delta Kappan (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Online (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- IOE EPrints (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- OpenGrey (Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Nuffield Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Keywords
- assessment for learning, classroom assessment, questioning strategies, feedback, peer assessment, self-assessment, student motivation, student attitudes, high school mathematics, secondary school science, academic performance
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