Symptoms, complications and management of long COVID: a review
Open accessAbstract
Globally, there are now over 160 million confirmed cases of COVID-19 and more than 3 million deaths. While the majority of infected individuals recover, a significant proportion continue to experience symptoms and complications after their acute illness. Patients with ‘long COVID’ experience a wide range of physical and mental/psychological symptoms. Pooled prevalence data showed the 10 most prevalent reported symptoms were fatigue, shortness of breath, muscle pain, joint pain, headache, cough, chest pain, altered smell, altered taste and diarrhoea. Other common symptoms were cognitive impairment, memory loss, anxiety and sleep disorders. Beyond symptoms and complications, people with long COVID often reported impaired quality of life, mental health and employment issues. These individuals may require multidisciplinary care involving the long-term monitoring of symptoms, to identify potential complications, physical rehabilitation, mental health and social services support. Resilient healthcare systems are needed to ensure efficient and effective responses to future health challenges.
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Social and financial effects of COVID-19 contribute to issues surrounding long COVID, including mental ill health.
“The social and financial effects of COVID-19 also contribute to the issues surrounding long COVID, including mental ill health.”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [342]
People with long COVID often report impaired quality of life and issues with education and employment.
“People with long COVID often report impaired quality of life and issues with education and employment.”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [342]
Reported long COVID symptoms include fatigue, cough, chest tightness or pain, shortness of breath, sore throat, taste or smell abnormalities, palpitations, myalgia, joint pain, numbness or tingling, skin rashes, hair loss, diarrhoea, urological problems, headache, neurocognitive issues, insomnia, impaired balance or gait, and mental health problems; symptoms can be continuous or relapsing and remm
“Reported symptoms of long COVID include fatigue, cough, chest tightness, chest pain, shortness of breath, sore throat, abnormalities of taste and smell, palpitations, myalgia, joint pain, numbness or tingling, skin rashes, hair loss, diarrhoea, urological problems, headache, neurocognitive issues including altered memory and concentration, cognitive blunting (known as brain fog), insomnia, im”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [342]
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Galal, I., Hussein, A. A. R. M., Amin, M. T., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.11.11.20230052 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Long covid”: the Dutch response
Burgers, J. S. (2020) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.m3202 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic
Sachs, J. D., Karim, S. S. A., Aknin, L., Allen, J., Brosbøl, K., Colombo, F., Barron, G. C., Espinosa, M. F., Gaspar, V., Gaviria, A., et al. (2022) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(22)01585-9 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
Robinson, D. J., Hanson, K., Jain, A. B., Kichler, J. C., Mehta, G., Melamed, O. C., Vallis, M., Bajaj, H. S., Barnes, T., Gilbert, J., et al. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2023.04.009 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Hawke, L. D., Nguyen, A. T. P., Ski, C. F., Thompson, D. R., Ma, C., & Castle, D. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722002203 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
- Authors
- Aiyegbusi, O. L., Hughes, S. E., Turner, G., Rivera, S. C., McMullan, C., Chandan, J. S., Haroon, S., Price, G., Davies, E. H., Nirantharakumar, K., Sapey, E., Calvert, M. J., & on behalf of the TLC Study Group
- Affiliations
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (GB)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Aparito Limited (United Kingdom) (GB)
- Health Data Research UK (GB)
- University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Aiyegbusi, Olalekan Lee
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2021-07-15
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 428-442
- ISSN
- 0141-0768 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-1095
- PMC
- PMC8450986
- OpenAlex
- W3174599482
- Cited by
- 969
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 128 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 226 · 2021: 23
- FWCI
- 24.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- NIHR (COV-LT-0013)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- long COVID, fatigue, cognitive impairment, mental health, quality of life, physical rehabilitation, multidisciplinary care, symptom management, health system resilience
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome, Mental Disorders, Delivery of Health Care, Diarrhea, Employment, Fatigue, Headache, Humans, Mental Health, Pain, Quality of Life, Respiratory Tract Diseases, Sensation Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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