Why Anger and Disappointment Affect Other’s Bargaining Behavior Differently: The Moderating Role of Power and the Mediating Role of Reciprocal and Complementary Emotions
Abstract
In two experiments, the authors investigated the interpersonal effects of anger and disappointment in negotiations. Whereas previous research focused on the informational inferences that bargainers make based on others' emotions, this article emphasizes the importance of affective reactions. The findings of this study show that anger evoked a complementary emotion (fear) in targets when reported by a high-power bargainer but evoked a reciprocal emotion (anger) when reported by a low-power bargainer. This reciprocal anger led participants to offer less to low-power counterparts who reported anger. Disappointed bargainers, however, evoked a complementary emotion (guilt) in participants and increased offers, regardless of the bargainer's power position.
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Verbal and nonverbal expressions of disappointment and worry can elicit concessions from counterparts in negotiations.
“Furthermore, negotiation studies indicate that verbal as well as nonverbal expressions of disappointment and worry can elicit concessions from counterparts (Lelieveld et al. 2012(Lelieveld et al. , 2013;;Van Kleef et al. 2006).”
From The Social Effects of Emotions (2022) · cites this paper as Lelieveld et al. 2012
Lower-power partners experienced more fear when confronted with a higher-power counterpart's verbal expressions of anger than vice versa.
“lower-power partners experienced more fear when confronted with a higher-power counterpart's verbal expressions of anger than vice versa”
From The Social Effects of Emotions (2022) · cites this paper as Lelieveld et al. 2012
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A survey of automated negotiation: Human factor, learning, and application
Luo, X., Li, Y., Huang, Q., & Zhan, J. (2024) · Computer Science Review · doi:10.1016/j.cosrev.2024.100683 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Anger as a trigger for information search in integrative negotiations.
Rees, L. L., Chi, S.-C. S., Friedman, R., & Shih, H. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000458 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Behavioral and neural reactions to emotions of others in the distribution of resources
Lelieveld, G., van Dijk, E., Güroğlu, B., van Beest, I., Kleef, G. A. V., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Crone, E. A. (2012) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2012.735621 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Moreover, our findings replicate previous results from negotiation studies, which show that people make more generous offers to disappointed than to angry bargainers (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
ResultSelf-citationKlapwijk, E. T., Aghajani, M., Lelieveld, G., van Lang, N. D. J., Popma, A., van der Wee, N. J. A., Colins, O. F., & Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3159-4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationCommunication of anger versus disappointment in bargaining and the moderating role of power
van Dijk, E., van Beest, I., Kleef, G. A. V., & Lelieveld, G. (2018) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.2079 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Follow‐up research showed that this may especially be the case for those in low power positions (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHillebrandt, A., & Barclay, L. J. (2017) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-017-0290-5 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The interpersonal effects of distinct emotions in online reviews
Lelieveld, G., & Hendriks, H. (2021) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2021.1947199 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationShaping Emotions in Negotiation: a Nash Bargaining Solution
Clempner, J. B. (2020) · Cognitive Computation · doi:10.1007/s12559-020-09713-9 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“[22] asserted that if anger is expressed by a negotiator with less power, it elicits reciprocal anger and fewer concessions.”
BackgroundThe Role of Regulatory Focus and Emotion Recognition Bias in Cross-Cultural Negotiation
Han, D., Park, H., & Rhee, S. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13052659 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Is there a place for sympathy in negotiation? Finding strength in weakness
Shirako, A., Kilduff, G. J., & Kray, L. J. (2015) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.09.004 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Further, recent work has shown that expressions of disappointment can elicit cooperative behavior in others, not just because they signal a lack of satisfaction, but because they can evoke feelings of guilt (Lelieveld, Van Dijk, Van Beest, Steinel, & Van Kleef, 2011; Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundÇelik, P., Storme, M., & Myszkowski, N. (2016) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12149 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The role of affects in conflict frames and conflict management
Yang, M.-Y., Cheng, F.-C., & Chuang, A. (2015) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-09-2013-0077 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…some researchers have examined the effect of emotions, especially anger (Allred et al., 1997; Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Van Kleef et al., 2008; Lelieveld et al., 2012), while some have investigated the impact of moods (Carnevale and Isen, 1986; Forgas, 1998) and still others have targeted the…”
BackgroundAnger displays and integrative behavior among work dyads in teams: A regulatory fit approach
To, M. L., Lam, C. K., Janssen, O., & Xiao, L. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2507 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…individually) may not be adaptive or even be regarded as maladaptive for co-workers' interactions (e.g., Janssen et al., 1999; Lanaj et al., 2012; Lelieveld et al., 2012), our findings suggest the adaptive role of their congruence in producing interpersonal functions among team co-workers.”
BackgroundShall I Show My Emotions? The Effects of Facial Expressions in the Ultimatum Game
Ferracci, S., Giuliani, F., Brancucci, A., & Pietroni, D. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12010008 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“[22], they examined how the expression of disappointment shown by the responder also modulated the offers expressed by the proposer.”
BackgroundAntivo, J. M. T., Garin, J. L. D., Labha, E. M. A., Pedro, A. C. S., Mesana, J. C. B., & de Guzman, A. B. (2024) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2024.2410582 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Expressing disappointment can provoke emotion toward social responsibility since it shows higher expectations (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
Challenge and threat responses to anger communication in coalition formation
van Beest, I., & Scheepers, D. T. (2012) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2012.10.005 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Illes, R., Ellemers, N., & Harinck, F. (2014) · Conflict Resolution Quarterly · doi:10.1002/crq.21089 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Limiting fear and anger responses to anger expressions
Rees, L. L., Friedman, R., Olekalns, M., & Lachowicz, M. J. (2019) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-01-2019-0016 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Effects of Anger in Ultimatum Bargaining
Reed, L. I., Okun, S., & Cooley, C. (2020) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-020-00136-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Teaching Reverse Appraisal to Improve Negotiation Skills
Sato, M., Terada, K., & Gratch, J. S. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2023.3285931 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“However, the fact that anger works only against those with poor alternatives [38], [39], [40], [41] suggests that anger encodes power as well as limits.”
BackgroundRees, L. L., & Friedman, R. (2024) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2022.0160 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The neural dynamics underlying the interpersonal effects of emotional expression on decision making
Chen, X., Zheng, T., Han, L., Chang, Y., & Luo, Y. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep46651 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Impact of Behavioral Factors on the Decisive Usefulness of Accounting Information
Kiziukiewicz, T., & Jaworska, E. (2017) · Springer proceedings in business and economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-62938-4_13 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Shepherd, L., Mouter, O., Elsey, V., & Lovell, B. (2023) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-023-01358-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“When low-power individuals do express anger, it may backfire and result in anger being experienced by the high-power individuals (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe interpersonal effects of emotion on rejection of severely unfair ultimatum proposal
Pietroni, D., Verdi, S., Giuliani, F., Rosa, A., Fabio Del Missier, A., & Palumbo, R. (2021) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-03-2021-0049 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
More than a Feeling: How Board Member Displays of Anger and Happiness Influence Strategic Decisions
van den Oever, K., & Shropshire, C. (2024) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2022.1075 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The power of lost alternatives in negotiations
Brady, G. L., Inesi, M. E., & Mussweiler, T. (2020) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.10.010 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Do targets of ostracism truthfully communicate their emotional reactions to sources?
Meral, E. O., Ren, D., van Osch, Y., van Dijk, E., & van Beest, I. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103956 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Surprising Effectiveness of Hostile Mediators
Zhang, T., Francesca Gino, B., & Norton, M. I. (2016) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2016.2431 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…we treat displays of meanness, or general unkindness, as manifestations of hostility targeted at individuals and locate hostility on the low spectrum of “warmth,” an important dimension upon which people evaluate others (Cuddy et al. 2008, Fiske et al. 2002, Lacefield 2008, Lelieveld et al. 2012).”
BackgroundPersonal sense of power, emotion and compliance in the workplace: a moderated mediation approach
Laslo‐Roth, R., & Schmidt‐Barad, T. (2020) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-07-2019-0113 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Teacher disappointment: subjective definitions, factors and consequences
Grossman, S., & Oplatka, İ. (2020) · Journal of Professional Capital and Community · doi:10.1108/jpcc-03-2020-0012 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Prassa, K., & Stalikas, A. (2020) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2020.111008 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“111008 121 Psychology less value from them (Butt & Choi, 2009; Van Kleef & Côté, 2007; Lelieveld et al., 2012; Wang, Northcraft, & Van Kleef, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialBAKER, N. (2020) · Beykoz Akademi Dergisi · doi:10.14514/byk.m.26515393.2020.8/2.106-126 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ivanova, S., Treffers, T., Langerak, F., & Groth, M. (2022) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/10422587221093295 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“We measured perceived emotional appropriateness with the following item, answered by the respondent’s team members: “Thinking about the obstacles you listed before, howmuch do you agree with the following statement: [Name’]’s emotional reactions were appropriate” (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
MethodPorat, R., & Paluck, E. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1337715 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Parlamis, J. D., Badawy, R., Haber, J. A., & Brouer, R. L. (2020) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-06-2019-0094 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ye, Z., Lelieveld, G., Noordewier, M. K., & van Dijk, E. (2023) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-023-09850-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“That is, the perceived appropriateness and genuineness of emotion communications depends on the degree to which the communication corresponds to what the expressor actually appears to be feeling (see also Olekalns and Druckman 2014; Van Kleef 2009, 2010, 2014; Van Kleef et al. 2012).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationJohnson, N., Cooper, R. B., & Holowczak, R. D. (2016) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1057/ejis.2016.4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This may be because of the individual’s belief that the communicated anger indicates that the partner may be about to stop negotiations, and that a concession is necessary if there is to be any hope of reaching an agreement (Lelieveld et al, 2012; Johnson and Cooper, 2015).”
BackgroundImproved conflict resolution in romantic couples in mediation compared to negotiation
Bogacz, F., Pun, T., & Klimecki, O. (2020) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00622-8 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Notably, in our study, the average duration of the discussions in both conditions was significantly longer than that in previous research (Levenson and Gottman, 1983) (around 50min compared with 15min), which could explain the difference in physiological linkage results between our results and…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialImplicit communication in the ultimatum game
Brunner, M., & Ostermaier, A. (2018) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2018.08.003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Specifically, anger and disappointment have been identified as the prevalent affective reactions to unfair offers (Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundHalperin, E., Kretchner, M., Hirsch‐Hoefler, S., & Elad‐Strenger, J. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2348028 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Additionally, disappointment expressions can evoke collective guilt (Solak et al., 2017) which has been linked to increased concessions in negotiations (e.g. Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundWang, Y. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251318973 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Anxiety is the typical complementary emotion to anger (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
Lam, J., Kop, N., & Kerstholt, J. H. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09587-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“People are driven not only by their own feelings but also by the emotions of others, which provide information that can be used as input to their decisions and elicit affective responses (Lelieveld et al. 2012; Van Kleef et al. 2010).”
BackgroundSato, M., Terada, K., & Gratch, J. S. (2023) · International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction Workshops and Demos (ACIIW) · doi:10.1109/aciiw59127.2023.10388197 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Anger encodes limits [11], [28], [32], power [25], [30], toughness [52], social motives [11], [55], and preferences [45].”
BackgroundAnicich, E. M. (2016) · doi:10.7916/d8w37wfc · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No 120 Langner & Keltner (2008) Langner & Keltner (2008) Lelieveld et al. (2012) Lelieveld et al. (2012) Leliveld et al. (2009) Leliveld et al. (2009) Lewis, Lange, & Gillis (2005) Lisjak, Molden, & Lee (2012) Lount & Pettit…”
BackgroundHeart to Heart: How Your Emotions Affect Other People
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kretchner, M., Elad‐Strenger, J., Hirsch‐Hoefler, S., Harel, T. O., & Halperin, E. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/x5mqd · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Workplace Affect, Conflict, and Negotiation
Olekalns, M., & Rees, L. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social contagion or strategic choice?
Wang, M., Han, Y., & Su, Y. (2017) · Chinese Management Studies · doi:10.1108/cms-05-2017-0122 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The influence of emotional expressions of an industrial robot on human collaborative decision-making
Usui, K., Terada, K., & de Melo, C. D. (2022) · Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction · doi:10.1109/acii55700.2022.9953890 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Anger in negotiation encodes limits 978-1-6654-5908-2/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE [7], [23], [27], power [20], [25], toughness [49], social motives [7], [54], and preferences [40].”
BackgroundInfluentialParkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Teacher Disappointments from Teacher's Perspective
Şahin, S., Demir, Ö., & Şevik, Y. K. (2024) · Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.59409/ojer.1486105 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Influence of Dominant Posture in Negotiation: An Ultimatum Game Study
Ferracci, S., Manippa, V., Giuliani, F., Palumbo, R., & Pietroni, D. (2025) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2025.2585405 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kretchner, M., Elad‐Strenger, J., Hirsch‐Hoefler, S., Harel, T. O., & Halperin, E. (2026) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2026.2639074 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Peleckis, K. K. (2014) · Business and management · doi:10.3846/bm.2014.051
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.007
- Authors
- Lelieveld, G.-J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., & Van Kleef, G. A.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Leiden University, Netherlands
- Tilburg University, Netherlands
- University of Amsterdam, Netherlands
- ORCID
- Lelieveld, Gert-Jan
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-05-23
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1209-1221
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- OpenAlex
- W2156187994
- Cited by
- 129
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 24.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Conflict Management and Negotiation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- anger, disappointment, negotiation behavior, negotiation, affective reactions, power positions, guilt, fear
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anger, Emotions, Fear, Female, Guilt, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Power, Psychological, Negotiating, Young Adult
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