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Why Anger and Disappointment Affect Other’s Bargaining Behavior Differently: The Moderating Role of Power and the Mediating Role of Reciprocal and Complementary Emotions
Abstract
In two experiments, the authors investigated the interpersonal effects of anger and disappointment in negotiations. Whereas previous research focused on the informational inferences that bargainers make based on others' emotions, this article emphasizes the importance of affective reactions. The findings of this study show that anger evoked a complementary emotion (fear) in targets when reported by a high-power bargainer but evoked a reciprocal emotion (anger) when reported by a low-power bargainer. This reciprocal anger led participants to offer less to low-power counterparts who reported anger. Disappointed bargainers, however, evoked a complementary emotion (guilt) in participants and increased offers, regardless of the bargainer's power position.
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“Furthermore, negotiation studies indicate that verbal as well as nonverbal expressions of disappointment and worry can elicit concessions from counterparts (Lelieveld et al. 2012(Lelieveld et al. , 2013;;Van Kleef et al. 2006).”
From The Social Effects of Emotions (2022) · cites this paper as Lelieveld et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“lower-power partners experienced more fear when confronted with a higher-power counterpart's verbal expressions of anger than vice versa”
From The Social Effects of Emotions (2022) · cites this paper as Lelieveld et al. 2012
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“Also, whereas in the interpersonal realm the expression of disappointment evokes the complementary emotion of guilt in the observer (Lelieveld et al., 2012), fear increases sympathy and compassion (see Van Kleef et al., 2006).”
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“For example, people react with more fair offers after they read disappointed compared with angry reactions, probably due to feelings of guilt caused by disappointment (Lelieveld et al., 2012, 2013b).”
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“Both of these emotions are similar in valence and intensity, but are linked to different appraisals and elicit different behaviors (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
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How self-regulation helps to master negotiation challenges: An overview, integration, and outlook
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“…angry targets (e.g., Hareli, Shomrat, & Hess, 2009), and negotiation studies have used confederates who make statements such as “This is really getting on my nerves” (Van Kleef et al., 2004, p. 61; see also Lelieveld, Van Dijk, Van Beest, & Van Kleef, 2012, and Wang, Northcraft, & Van Kleef, 2012).”
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“For instance, several of these studies have identified how the emotion of a counterpart matters, and how to respond in the most strategic way possible (e.g., Côté et al., 2013; Lelieveld et al., 2011; Lelieveld et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2012).”
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“…some researchers have examined the effect of emotions, especially anger (Allred et al., 1997; Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Van Kleef et al., 2008; Lelieveld et al., 2012), while some have investigated the impact of moods (Carnevale and Isen, 1986; Forgas, 1998) and still others have targeted the…”
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“[22], they examined how the expression of disappointment shown by the responder also modulated the offers expressed by the proposer.”
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“When low-power individuals do express anger, it may backfire and result in anger being experienced by the high-power individuals (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
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Pietroni, D., Verdi, S., Giuliani, F., Rosa, A., Fabio Del Missier, A., & Palumbo, R. (2021) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-03-2021-0049 · Cited by 8
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“We measured perceived emotional appropriateness with the following item, answered by the respondent’s team members: “Thinking about the obstacles you listed before, howmuch do you agree with the following statement: [Name’]’s emotional reactions were appropriate” (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
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“That is, the perceived appropriateness and genuineness of emotion communications depends on the degree to which the communication corresponds to what the expressor actually appears to be feeling (see also Olekalns and Druckman 2014; Van Kleef 2009, 2010, 2014; Van Kleef et al. 2012).”
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“This may be because of the individual’s belief that the communicated anger indicates that the partner may be about to stop negotiations, and that a concession is necessary if there is to be any hope of reaching an agreement (Lelieveld et al, 2012; Johnson and Cooper, 2015).”
BackgroundImproved conflict resolution in romantic couples in mediation compared to negotiation
Bogacz, F., Pun, T., & Klimecki, O. (2020) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00622-8 · Cited by 9
“Notably, in our study, the average duration of the discussions in both conditions was significantly longer than that in previous research (Levenson and Gottman, 1983) (around 50min compared with 15min), which could explain the difference in physiological linkage results between our results and…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialImplicit communication in the ultimatum game
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“Specifically, anger and disappointment have been identified as the prevalent affective reactions to unfair offers (Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
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“Additionally, disappointment expressions can evoke collective guilt (Solak et al., 2017) which has been linked to increased concessions in negotiations (e.g. Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
BackgroundWang, Y. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251318973 · Cited by 4
“Anxiety is the typical complementary emotion to anger (Lelieveld et al., 2012).”
Lam, J., Kop, N., & Kerstholt, J. H. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09587-1 · Cited by 3
“People are driven not only by their own feelings but also by the emotions of others, which provide information that can be used as input to their decisions and elicit affective responses (Lelieveld et al. 2012; Van Kleef et al. 2010).”
BackgroundSato, M., Terada, K., & Gratch, J. S. (2023) · International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction Workshops and Demos (ACIIW) · doi:10.1109/aciiw59127.2023.10388197 · Cited by 4
“Anger encodes limits [11], [28], [32], power [25], [30], toughness [52], social motives [11], [55], and preferences [45].”
BackgroundAnicich, E. M. (2016) · doi:10.7916/d8w37wfc · Cited by 3
“…No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No 120 Langner & Keltner (2008) Langner & Keltner (2008) Lelieveld et al. (2012) Lelieveld et al. (2012) Leliveld et al. (2009) Leliveld et al. (2009) Lewis, Lange, & Gillis (2005) Lisjak, Molden, & Lee (2012) Lount & Pettit…”
BackgroundHeart to Heart: How Your Emotions Affect Other People
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cited by 3
Kretchner, M., Elad‐Strenger, J., Hirsch‐Hoefler, S., Harel, T. O., & Halperin, E. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/x5mqd · Cited by 3
Workplace Affect, Conflict, and Negotiation
Olekalns, M., & Rees, L. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.020 · Cited by 2
Social contagion or strategic choice?
Wang, M., Han, Y., & Su, Y. (2017) · Chinese Management Studies · doi:10.1108/cms-05-2017-0122 · Cited by 2
The influence of emotional expressions of an industrial robot on human collaborative decision-making
Usui, K., Terada, K., & de Melo, C. D. (2022) · Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction · doi:10.1109/acii55700.2022.9953890 · Cited by 1
“Anger in negotiation encodes limits 978-1-6654-5908-2/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE [7], [23], [27], power [20], [25], toughness [49], social motives [7], [54], and preferences [40].”
BackgroundInfluentialParkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.006 · Cited by 1
Teacher Disappointments from Teacher's Perspective
Şahin, S., Demir, Ö., & Şevik, Y. K. (2024) · Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.59409/ojer.1486105 · Cited by 1
The Influence of Dominant Posture in Negotiation: An Ultimatum Game Study
Ferracci, S., Manippa, V., Giuliani, F., Palumbo, R., & Pietroni, D. (2025) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2025.2585405 · Cited by 2
Kretchner, M., Elad‐Strenger, J., Hirsch‐Hoefler, S., Harel, T. O., & Halperin, E. (2026) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2026.2639074 · Cited by 4
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.002 · Cited by 1
Bertram, S. (2018) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17067902.v1 · Cited by 1
Peleckis, K. K. (2014) · Business and management · doi:10.3846/bm.2014.051
Parkinson, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108696234.007
Metadata
- Authors
- Lelieveld, G.-J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., & Van Kleef, G. A.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Tilburg University (NL)
- University of Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-05-23
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1209-1221
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- OpenAlex
- W2156187994
- Cited by
- 129
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 24.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Conflict Management and Negotiation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- anger, disappointment, negotiation behavior, negotiation, affective reactions, power positions, guilt, fear
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anger, Emotions, Fear, Female, Guilt, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Power, Psychological, Negotiating, Young Adult
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