The DOI matches its Crossref record; 83 of the 83 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Natural Language Analysis and the Psychology of Verbal Behavior: The Past, Present, and Future States of the Field
Open accessAbstract
Throughout history, scholars and laypeople alike have believed that our words contain subtle clues about what we are like as people, psychologically speaking. However, the ways in which language has been used to infer psychological processes has seen dramatic shifts over time and, with modern computational technologies and digital data sources, we are on the verge of a massive revolution in language analysis research. In this article, we discuss the past and current states of research at the intersection of language analysis and psychology, summarizing the central successes and shortcomings of psychological text analysis to date. We additionally outline and discuss a critical need for language analysis practitioners in the social sciences to expand their view of verbal behavior. Lastly, we discuss the trajectory of interdisciplinary research on language and the challenges of integrating analysis methods across paradigms, recommending promising future directions for the field along the way.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, such a dictionary-based approach oversimplifies older people's interactions with SVA to a one-way initiative by the user and fails to capture the communicative nature of such interactions—the transmission and coordination of complex information with others (7).”
From Understanding older people's voice interactions with smart voice assistants: a new modified rule-based natural language processing model with human input (2024) · cites this paper as [7]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) · doi:10.18653/v1/n19-1423 · Cited by 54,325
Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases and their Compositionality
Mikolov, T., Sutskever, I., Chen, K., Corrado, G., & Dean, J. (2013) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1310.4546 · Cited by 24,533
Ambrose, A., Wittgenstein, L., & Anscombe, G. E. M. (1954) · Philosophy and Phenomenological Research · doi:10.2307/2103745 · Cited by 12,289
XLNet: Generalized Autoregressive Pretraining for Language Understanding
Yang, Z., Dai, Z., Yang, Y., Carbonell, J., Salakhutdinov, R., & Le, Q. V. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1906.08237 · Cited by 6,687
The Psychological Meaning of Words: LIWC and Computerized Text Analysis Methods
Tausczik, Y. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x09351676 · Cited by 5,774
Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts
Grimmer, J., & Stewart, B. M. (2013) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mps028 · Cited by 3,297 · cited 2×
“For example, political science papers describing computational text analysis (Grimmer & Stewart, 2013); psychology papers describing machine learning (Stachl et al., 2020), and machine learning papers describing social sciences (O’Connor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundQuantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books
Michel, J.-B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., The Google Books Team, Pickett, J. P., Hoiberg, D., Clancy, D., Norvig, P., et al. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1199644 · Cited by 3,235
Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgement and choice
Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999300402763 · Cited by 3,171
Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases
Caliskan, A., Bryson, J. J., & Narayanan, A. (2017) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aal4230 · Cited by 2,887
Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of Social Media: The Open-Vocabulary Approach
Schwartz, H. A., Eichstaedt, J. C., Kern, M. L., Dziurzynski, L., Ramones, S. M., Agrawal, M., Shah, A., Kosinski, M., Stillwell, D., Seligman, M. E. P., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073791 · Cited by 1,700
Self-citationWord of mouth and interpersonal communication: A review and directions for future research
Berger, J. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.05.002 · Cited by 1,469
Diurnal and seasonal mood vary with work, sleep, and daylength across diverse cultures
Golder, S. A., & Macy, M. W. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1202775 · Cited by 1,155 · cited 1×
“Even in the absence of other psychological measures, the existing nomological network for language analysis facilitates meaningful theory-testing, ranging from the study of daylight cycles on mood (Golder & Macy, 2011) to personality-driven business outcomes (Block et al., 2019).”
BackgroundUsing linguistic cues for the automatic recognition of personality in conversation and text
Mairesse, F., Walker, M. A., Mehl, M. R., & Moore, R. K. (2007) · Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research · doi:10.1613/jair.2349 · Cited by 1,046
The General Inquirer: A Computer Approach to Content Analysis
Green, B. F., Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C., Smith, M. S., & Ogilvie, D. M. (1967) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1161774 · Cited by 1,013
Mapping authors in intellectual space: A technical overview
McCain, K. W. (1990) · Journal of the American Society for Information Science · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4571(199009)41:6 · Cited by 987
WHY SUMMARIES OF RESEARCH ON PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ARE OFTEN UNINTERPRETABLE
Meehl, P. E. (1990) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1990.66.1.195 · Cited by 934
Collaborative Research Across Disciplinary and Organizational Boundaries
Cummings, J. N., & Kiesler, S. (2005) · Social Studies of Science · doi:10.1177/0306312705055535 · Cited by 759
Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems
Cortes, C., Lee, D., Sugiyama, M., & Garnett, R. (2015) · Cited by 747
The Measurement of Psychological States Through the Content Analysis of Verbal Behavior
Gottschalk, L. A., & Gleser, G. C. (1969) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520376762 · Cited by 657
When Small Words Foretell Academic Success: The Case of College Admissions Essays
Pennebaker, J. W., Chung, C. K., Frazee, J., Lavergne, G. M., & Beaver, D. I. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115844 · Cited by 568
Social Computing: From Social Informatics to Social Intelligence
Wang, F., Carley, K. M., Zeng, D. D., & Mao, W. (2007) · IEEE Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1109/mis.2007.41 · Cited by 568
Pronoun Use Reflects Standings in Social Hierarchies
Kacewicz, E., Pennebaker, J., Davis, M., Jeon, M., & Graesser, A. (2014) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x13502654 · Cited by 512
Psychological Language on Twitter Predicts County-Level Heart Disease Mortality
Eichstaedt, J. C., Schwartz, H. A., Kern, M. L., Park, G., Labarthe, D. R., Merchant, R. M., Jha, S., Agrawal, M., Dziurzynski, L., Sap, M., et al. (2015) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614557867 · Cited by 507
Self-citationWhat is the central feature of extraversion? Social attention versus reward sensitivity
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Paunonen, S. V. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.245 · Cited by 481
No country for old members: user lifecycle and linguistic change in online communities
Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C., West, R., Jurafsky, D., Leskovec, J., & Potts, C. (2013) · The Web Conference · doi:10.1145/2488388.2488416 · Cited by 457
Trait explanations in personality psychology
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1995) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410090402 · Cited by 457
How Interpersonal Motives Clarify the Meaning of Interpersonal Behavior: A Revised Circumplex Model
Horowitz, L. M., Wilson, K. R., Turan, B., Zolotsev, P., Constantino, M. J., & Henderson, L. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_4 · Cited by 405
Language style matching in writing: synchrony in essays, correspondence, and poetry.
Ireland, M. E., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020386 · Cited by 380
Language-based personality: a new approach to personality in a digital world
Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.017 · Cited by 296
Self-citationThe Use of Personal Documents in Psychological Science.
Park, R. E., & Āllport, G. W. (1942) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2085375 · Cited by 281
Continuum companion to discourse analysis
Paltridge, B., & Hyland, K. (2011) · Cited by 261
Collective Emotions and Social Resilience in the Digital Traces After a Terrorist Attack
García, D., & Rimé, B. (2019) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619831964 · Cited by 236
Stone, P. J., Bales, R. F., Namenwirth, J. Z., & Ogilvie, D. M. (2007) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830070412 · Cited by 220
Garten, J., Hoover, J., JOHNSON, K., Boghrati, R., Iskiwitch, C., & Dehghani, M. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0875-9 · Cited by 190
Bardi, A., Calogero, R. M., & Mullen, B. R. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.483 · Cited by 183
Sounds like a narcissist: Behavioral manifestations of narcissism in everyday life
Holtzman, N. S., Vazire, S., & Mehl, M. R. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.001 · Cited by 180
Personality Research and Assessment in the Era of Machine Learning
Stachl, C., Pargent, F., Hilbert, S., Harari, G. M., Schoedel, R., Vaid, S. S., Gosling, S. D., & Bühner, M. (2020) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2257 · Cited by 178
Natural emotion vocabularies as windows on distress and well-being
Vine, V., Boyd, R. L., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18349-0 · Cited by 153
Self-citationVerbal behavior in everyday life
Weintraub, W. (1989) · Cited by 144
Predicting Final Course Performance From Students’ Written Self-Introductions
Robinson, R. L., Navea, R., & Ickes, W. J. (2013) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x13476869 · Cited by 136
Linguistic Bases of Social Perception
Berry, D. S., Pennebaker, J. W., Mueller, J., & Hiller, W. S. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297235008 · Cited by 121
Suicide Risk Assessment with Multi-level Dual-Context Language and
Matero, M., Idnani, A., Son, Y., Giorgi, S., Vu, H., Zamani, M., Limbachiya, P., Guntuku, S. C., & Schwartz, H. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.18653/v1/w19-3005 · Cited by 102
Self-citationThe Secret Life of Pronouns. What Our Words Say About Us
Nerbonne, J. (2014) · Literary and Linguistic Computing · doi:10.1093/llc/fqt006 · Cited by 93
No Place Like Home: Home Tours Correlate With Daily Patterns of Mood and Cortisol
Saxbe, D., & Repetti, R. L. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209352864 · Cited by 84
Use of Social Words in Autobiographies and Longevity
Pressman, S. D., & Cohen, S. (2007) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31803cb919 · Cited by 72
The Nature of Interpersonal Communication: A Message-Centered Approach
Burleson, B. R. (2010) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412982818.n9 · Cited by 72
A personality perspective on business angel syndication✰
Block, J., Fisch, C. O., Obschonka, M., & Sandner, P. (2018) · Journal of Banking & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2018.10.006 · Cited by 70
Linguistic predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms following 11 September 2001
D'Andrea, W., Chiu, P. H., Casas, B. R., & Deldin, P. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1830 · Cited by 62
Linguistic positivity in historical texts reflects dynamic environmental and psychological factors
Iliev, R. I., Hoover, J., Dehghani, M., & Axelrod, R. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1612058113 · Cited by 60
Tong, S. T., Corriero, E. F., Wibowo, K. A., Makki, T. W., & Slatcher, R. B. (2019) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444819872678 · Cited by 56
Chung, C. K., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2018) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781526451163.n16 · Cited by 53
Natural language indicators of differential gene regulation in the human immune system
Mehl, M. R., Raison, C. L., Pace, T. W. W., Arevalo, J. M. G., & Cole, S. W. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1707373114 · Cited by 52
The Personality Panorama: Conceptualizing Personality through Big Behavioural Data
Boyd, R. L., Pasca, P., & Lanning, K. (2020) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2254 · Cited by 52
Self-citationWhat Words Are Worth: National Science Foundation Grant Abstracts Indicate Award Funding
Markowitz, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x18824859 · Cited by 51
A Weighted Referential Activity Dictionary
Bucci, W., & Maskit, B. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-4102-0_6 · Cited by 49
Linguistic Harbingers of Betrayal: A Case Study on an Online Strategy Game
Niculae, V., Kumar, S., Boyd-Graber, J. L., & Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C. (2015) · doi:10.3115/v1/p15-1159 · Cited by 49
The Words that Predict the Outbreak of Wars
Hogenraad, R. L. (2003) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.2190/hjwq-qrbx-0c2e-vjya · Cited by 45
The 2016 U.S. Presidential Candidates and How People Tweeted About Them
Jordan, K., Pennebaker, J. W., & Ehrig, C. (2018) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244018791218 · Cited by 43
Validating automated integrative complexity: Natural language processing and the Donald Trump Test
Conway, L. G., Conway, K., & Houck, S. C. (2020) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1307 · Cited by 43
Bayram, A. B., & Ta, V. P. (2018) · Negotiation and Conflict Management Research · doi:10.1111/ncmr.12142 · Cited by 41
Personality development through natural language
Lanning, K., Pauletti, R. E., King, L. A., & McAdams, D. P. (2018) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0329-0 · Cited by 37
Hablo Inglés y Español: Cultural Self-Schemas as a Function of Language
Rodríguez-Arauz, G., Ramírez‐Esparza, N., Perez‐Brena, N. J., & Boyd, R. L. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00885 · Cited by 32
Self-citationPersonality Research and Assessment in the Era of Machine LearningPreprint
Stachl, C., Pargent, F., Hilbert, S., et al. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/efnj8 · Cited by 31
Are Words of the Rorschach Predictors of Disease and Death? The Case of “Whirling”
Thomas, C. B., & Duszynski, K. R. (1985) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-198503000-00012 · Cited by 26
Carpenter, J. M., Preoțiuc-Pietro, D., Flek, L., Giorgi, S., Hagan, C. A., Kern, M. L., Buffone, A. E. K., Ungar, L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2016) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550616671998 · Cited by 23
Deception and Language: The Contextual Organization of Language and Deception (COLD) Framework
Markowitz, D. M., & Hancock, J. T. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96334-1_10 · Cited by 23
Interactional Adjustment: Three Approaches in Language and Social Psychology
Gasiorek, J., Weatherall, A., & Watson, B. M. (2020) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x20965652 · Cited by 22
Smith, M. S. (1968) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-4405(68)90017-4 · Cited by 21
Language Matters: The Double-Edged Role of Linguistic Style Matching in Work Groups
Heuer, K., Müller-Frommeyer, L. C., & Kauffeld, S. (2019) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496419874498 · Cited by 21
Reciprocal language style matching in psychotherapy research
Doorn, K. A., & Müller-Frommeyer, L. C. (2020) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12298 · Cited by 21
Comparison of Themes in Folktales by the General Inquirer System
Colby, B. N., Collier, G. A., & Postal, S. K. (1963) · Journal of American Folklore · doi:10.2307/537928 · Cited by 20
Lumma, A., Valk, S. L., Böckler, A., Vrtička, P., & Singer, T. (2018) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.940 · Cited by 19
Development and Application of a Content Analysis Dictionary for Body Boundary Research
Wilson, A. (2005) · Digital Scholarship in the Humanities · doi:10.1093/llc/fqi014 · Cited by 18
Robinson, M. D., Boyd, R. L., Fetterman, A. K., & Persich, M. R. (2017) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x16668376 · Cited by 17
Self-citationKranz, P. (1970) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830150311 · Cited by 16
National character stereotypes mirror language use: A study of Canadian and American tweets
Snefjella, B., Schmidtke, D., & Kuperman, V. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206188 · Cited by 16
Incorporating Demographic Embeddings Into Language Understanding
Garten, J., Kennedy, B., Hoover, J., Sagae, K., & Dehghani, M. (2019) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12701 · Cited by 15
The general inquirer: Useful or not?
Psathas, G. (1969) · Computers and the Humanities · doi:10.1007/bf02401609 · Cited by 13
Martindale, A. E., & Martindale, C. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.836 · Cited by 11
Laffal, J. (1964) · The Psychoanalytic Quarterly · doi:10.1080/21674086.1964.11926307 · Cited by 10
Developing Latent Semantic Similarity in Initial, Unstructured Interactions
Ta, V. P., Babcock, M. J., & Ickes, W. J. (2016) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x16638386 · Cited by 9
Using Syntactic and Semantic Context to Explore Psychodemographic Differences in Self-reference
Rouhizadeh, M., Ungar, L., Buffone, A. E. K., & Schwartz, H. A. (2016) · Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/d16-1219 · Cited by 8
Self-citationEast-West Conflict and Sino-Soviet Relations
Hoisti, O. R. (1965) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/002188636500100202 · Cited by 6
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- 10.1609/icwsm.v8i1.14547 · DOI
- Clarke A. C., Kubrick S. (1968). 2001: A space odyssey. The New American Library.
- Freud S. (1915). The unconscious. Penguin Classics.
- O’Connor B., Bamman D., Smith N. A. (2011). Computational text analysis for social science: Model assumptions and complexity. In Mason W., Vaughan J. W., Wallach H. (Eds.), Second Workshop on Computational Social Science and Wisdom of the Crowds (pp. 1–7). Curran Associates.
- Pennebaker J. W., Francis M. E. (1999). Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC): A computer-based text analysis program. Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Prasad R. Dinesh N. Lee A. Miltsakaki E. Robaldo L. Joshi A. Webber B. (2008 May). The Penn Discourse TreeBank 2.0. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’08). LREC 2008 Marrakech Morocco. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2008/pdf/754_paper.pdf
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Using large language models in psychology
Demszky, D., Yang, D., Yeager, D. S., Bryan, C. J., Clapper, M., Chandhok, S., Eichstaedt, J. C., Hecht, C., Jamieson, J., Johnson, M., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00241-5 · Cited by 369
From Text to Thought: How Analyzing Language Can Advance Psychological Science
Jackson, J. C., Watts, J., List, J., Puryear, C., Drabble, R., & Lindquist, K. A. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211004899 · Cited by 203
Large Language Model–Based Responses to Patients’ In-Basket Messages
Small, W. R., Wiesenfeld, B. M., Brandfield-Harvey, B., Jonassen, Z., Mandal, S., Stevens, E. R., Major, V. J., Lostraglio, E., Szerencsy, A. C., Jones, S., et al. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22399 · Cited by 115
Macanovic, A. (2022) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2022.102784 · Cited by 120
Koutsoumpis, A., Oostrom, J. K., Holtrop, D., van Breda, W., Ghassemi, S., & de Vries, R. E. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000381 · Cited by 102
Metadata
- Authors
- Boyd, R. L., & Schwartz, H. A.
- Affiliations
- Lancaster University (GB)
- Stony Brook University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Boyd, Ryan L.
- Venue
- Journal of Language and Social Psychology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-10-28
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 21-41
- ISSN
- 0261-927X (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6526
- PMC
- PMC8373026
- OpenAlex
- W3094938719
- Cited by
- 317
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 82 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 4
- FWCI
- 37.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Language and Social Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (196255)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01AA028032)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
- Social Sciences › General Social Sciences › Computational and Text Analysis Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Authorship Attribution and Profiling
- Keywords
- natural language analysis, verbal behavior, language and personality, computational text analysis, digital data sources, interdisciplinary research, methodological integration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
