Clines Without Classes: How to Make Sense of Human Variation
Abstract
This article examines Shiao, Bode, Beyer, and Selvig’s (2012) arguments in their article “The Genomic Challenge to the Social Construction of Race” and finds that their claims are based on fundamentally flawed interpretations of current genetic research. We discuss current genomic and genetic knowledge about human biological variation to demonstrate why and how Shiao et al.’s recommendations for future sociological studies and social policy, based on their inadequate understanding of genomic methods and evidence, are similarly flawed and will lead sociology astray.
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Genetics, biomedical researchers, and sociologists of science have emphasized the importance of distinguishing ancestry from racial taxonomies within biomedical research and have warned against the dangers of using racial categories to describe genetic variation.
“Genetics, biomedical researchers, and sociologists of science have emphasized the importance of distinguishing ancestry from racial taxonomies within biomedical research [40, 49, 84] and have warned against the dangers of of using racial categories to describe genetic variation [14, 30, 122].”
From Towards a critical race methodology in algorithmic fairness (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
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Gutin, I. (2018) · Medical Humanities · doi:10.1136/medhum-2017-011432 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Shostak, S., & Beckfield, J. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1057-629020150000016004 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Beyond the realism debate: The metaphysics of ‘racial’ distinctions
Lemeire, O. (2016) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.08.001 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Representing vulnerable populations in genetic studies: The case of the Roma
Lipphardt, V., Rappold, G., & Surdu, M. (2021) · Science in Context · doi:10.1017/s0269889722000023 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…DNA data, but also reinforce existing stereotypical group notions concerning ethnic or racial minorities, vulnerable and marginalized groups, see: Fujimura et al 2014; Bliss 2015, 2018; Duster, 2015; Fullwiley 2015; Gannett 2014; Lipphardt 2014, 2019; M‘charek, Schramm, Skinner 2014; Radin and…”
BackgroundInfluentialGriesemer, J. R., & Barragán, C. A. (2022) · History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40656-022-00497-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Genes, Race, and Causation: US Public Perspectives About Racial Difference
Outram, S. M., Graves, J. L., Powell, J., Wolpert, C. M., Haynie, K. L., Foster, M. W., Blanchard, J. W., Hoffmeyer, A., Agans, R., & Royal, C. D. M. (2018) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-018-9223-7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Race, Rare Genetic Variants, and the Science of Human Difference in the Post‐Genomic Age
Torres, J. B. (2019) · Transforming Anthropology · doi:10.1111/traa.12144 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Ancient Migrations: Biodistance, Genetics, and the Persistence of Typological Thinking
Stojanowski, C. M. (2018) · Bioarchaeology and social theory · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93012-1_8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
What Is Race? Four Philosophers, Six Views
Msimang, P. M. (2022) · Philosophical Papers · doi:10.1080/05568641.2022.2056072 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…racial interpretations of their work despite their work inspiring contemporary biologically realist continental race concepts (see discussion in Wills 2017) such as Spencer’s views on race (Spencer 2019) among others (e.g., Shiao et al. 2012; Sesardic 2013; cf., Fujimura et al. 2014; Hochman 2016).”
BackgroundKanitz, R., Guillot, E. G., Antoniazza, S., Neuenschwander, S., & Goudet, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192460 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Nash, C. (2016) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2016.1242763 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Conventional ethnic, racial and national categories continue to shape how human genetic variation is researched, analysed and described (Fullwiley 2007; Bolnick 2008; Fujimura et al. 2014; Reardon 2007).”
BackgroundMsimang, P. M. (2020) · SATS · doi:10.1515/sats-2020-2003 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The apportionment of citations: a scientometric analysis of Lewontin 1972
Carlson, J., & Harris, K. (2022) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0409 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Thaler, D. S., & Stoeckle, M. Y. (2016) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.2394 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“3 How does human genetic variation compare to that of the other animals, including but not limited to our closest relatives, among nonhuman primates? Human genetic variation is inherently interesting and is also controversial (Fuentes 2012; Shiao et al. 2012; Templeton 2013; Fujimura et al. 2014; Yudell et al. 2016).”
Background‘When are you from?’ Time, space, and capital in the molecular reinscription of race
Kahn, J. (2015) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12117_6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
How Troubling Is Our Inheritance? A Review of Genetics and Race in the Social Sciences
Cohen, P. N. (2015) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716215587673 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Why is all of sub-Saharan Africa considered one racial group? The answer is social, not biological (Fujimura et al. 2014; Morning 2014).”
BackgroundBiosocial criminology and the mismeasure of race
Larrègue, J., & Rollins, O. (2018) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2018.1527938 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…constructionist understandings of race with genetic ancestry research have overstated the relationship between genetic clusters and societal notions of self-identified race, often conflating population level genealogies with a priori racial classifications (Fujimura et al. 2014; Morning 2014a).”
BackgroundStandards and legacies: Pragmatic constraints on a uniform gene nomenclature
Halverson, C. M. E. (2019) · Social Studies of Science · doi:10.1177/0306312719850335 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A different kind of association between socio‐histories and health
Fujimura, J. H. (2015) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12117_5 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationHyun, J. (2016) · East Asian Science Technology and Society An International Journal · doi:10.1215/18752160-3132921 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Further, Fujimura et al. (2014) problematized the flawed interpretations of current genetic research that their sociologist colleagues proposed, in which race and ethnicity are “real” biological categories.”
BackgroundShiao, J. L. (2014) · Sociological Theory · doi:10.1177/0735275114551532 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Politics of Race and Science: Conservative Colorblindness and the Limits of Liberal Critique
Roberts, D. E. (2015) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x15000041 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Genetic Racial Profiling: Extended DNA Analyses and Entangled Processes of Discrimination
Bartram, I., Plümecke, T., & Schultz, S. U. (2021) · Science & Technology Studies · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Best, L. E., & Byrd, W. C. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1057-629020150000016011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Neto, C. (2025) · History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40656-025-00684-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“However, it is well-known that genetic differences among humans are extremely small and increase gradually with geographical distance (Serre & Paabo, 2004; Fujimura et al., 2014).”
Greene, A., Berghs, M. J., Atkin, K. M., & Dyson, S. M. (2025) · Industrial Relations Journal · doi:10.1111/irj.70023 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tibayrenc, M. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-420190-3.00037-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ethics and Practice in Communities of Care
Fujimura, J. H. (2024) · Science Technology & Human Values · doi:10.1177/01622439241285613 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Our research has shown that genomic differences created by GWAS have also been used by some to argue for essential biological differences by race (e.g., Fujimura et al. 2014).”
Self-citationChikhi, L., Racine, J., Tournebize, R., & Pocheville, A. (2026) · Evolutionary Biology/Evolutionary biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-13925-2_10 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Antiracist Structural Intervention at the Emory University Institutional Review Board
Rollin, F. G., Doren, V. V., Alvarez, J., Rousselle, R., & Bussey‐Jones, J. (2023) · Ethics & Human Research · doi:10.1002/eahr.500174 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Indefensible Spaces: Policing and the Struggle for Housing
Kurwa, R. (2025) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/luminos.235 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wie Phönix aus der Asche: Klassifikation, Erinnerungspolitik und Populationsgenetik in Südafrika
Schramm, K. (2015) · Sociologus · doi:10.3790/soc.65.2.201 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Discussing the Biocultural Approach to Race
Lefkaditou, A., & Kyllingstad, J. R. (2015) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-015-9772-8
Stingl, A. I. (2016) · Bulletin of Science Technology & Society · doi:10.1177/0270467616661905
Hopcroft, R. L. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316418369.017
Genetics and Racial Minorities in the U nited S tates
Efstathiou, S. (2016) · The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexuality Studies · doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss513
Race and Human Genomic Variation
Winther, R. G. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-99031-2_2
Merchant, E. K. (2023) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1001293
Science Literacy and Popular Culture: Forensic Anthropology in Application and Fiction
Baker, A. (2023) · PSU McNair Scholars Online Journal · doi:10.15760/mcnair.2023.16.1.9
Conceptualizations of ‘race’: surveys of Polish academics on the race concept
Kaszycka, K. A. (2024) · Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute · doi:10.1111/1467-9655.14232
Introduction: DNA, Race, and Reproduction in the Twenty-First Century
Merchant, E. K., & O’Keefe, M. (2025) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/luminos.218.a
Rulli, T. (2025) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/luminos.218.c
A Narrative Review on The Impact of Genomic Research on Personal and Group Identity
Sun, Q. (2025) · International Journal of Education and Social Development · doi:10.54097/vkcpkc89
“A study by Fujimura et al. (2014) found some individuals change their race/ethnicity self-reports on surveys after ancestry testing (e.g. adding new categories).”
Griesemer, J. R., & Barragán, C. A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-84609-0_24
Schramm, K. (2026) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0318
MODERN CRANIOMETRY: HOW 3D SCIENCE HAS ABOLISHED RACIAL TYPOLOGIES
Grigorescu, C. C., Grigorescu, Ș. M., Forna, N. C., Tihan, E. J., & Tihan and Associates. Professional civil society for psychology (2025) · Romanian Journal of Oral Rehabilitation · doi:10.62610/rjor.2025.4.17.16
Identity, Diversity, and Semiotic Innovation in Contemporary Photojournalism
Scott, A. (2026) · Howard Journal of Communications · doi:10.1080/10646175.2026.2677535
Holt, N. C., Nguyen, B. D., Reitman, T., Polly Campbell, A., Samuk, K., & Malone, M. (2026) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icag114
Race, racism, and the US production and exportation of medical science
Aysola, J., & Munyikwa, M. R. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-44998-7.00014-4
- Authors
- Fujimura, J. H., Bolnick, D. A., Rajagopalan, R., Kaufman, J. S., Lewontin, R. C., Duster, T., Ossorio, P., & Marks, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- McGill University (CA)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- University of North Carolina at Charlotte (US)
- Venue
- Sociological Theory
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2014-09
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 208-227
- ISSN
- 0735-2751 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9558
- OpenAlex
- W1974686998
- Cited by
- 76
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 5.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Sociological Theory (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Race, Genetics, and Society
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Keywords
- race, social construction of race, human diversity, genetic variation, race and genetics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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