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The contribution of rice agriculture and livestock pastoralism to prehistoric methane levels: An archaeological assessment

Fuller, Dorian Q, van Etten, Jacob, Manning, Katie, Castillo, Cristina, Kingwell-Banham, Eleanor, Weisskopf, Alison, Qin, Ling, Sato, Yo-Ichiro, Hijmans, Robert J·2011·The Holocene

DOI 10.1177/0959683611398052

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Abstract

We review the origins and dispersal of rice in Asia based on a data base of 443 archaeobotanical reports. Evidence is considered in terms of quality, and especially whether there are data indicating the mode of cultivation, in flooded (‘paddy’ or ‘wet’) or non-flooded (‘dry’) fields. At present it appears that early rice cultivation in the Yangtze region and southern China was based on wet, paddy-field systems from early on, before 4000 bc, whereas early rice in northern India and Thailand was predominantly dry rice at 2000 bc, with a transition to flooded rice documented for India at c. 1000 bc. On the basis of these data we have developed a GIS spatial model of the spread of rice and the growth of land area under paddy rice. This is then compared with a review of the spread of ungulate livestock (cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goat) throughout the Old World. After the initial dispersal through Europe and around the Mediterranean (7000–4000 bc), the major period of livestock expansion is after 3000 bc, into the Sub-Saharan savannas, through monsoonal India and into central China. Further expansion, to southern Africa and Southeast Asia dates mostly after 1000 bc. Based on these two data sets we provide a quantitative model of the land area under irrigated rice, and its likely methane output, through the mid to late Holocene, for comparison to a more preliminary estimate of the expansion of methane-producing livestock. Both data sets are congruent with an anthropogenic source of later Holocene methane after 3000 bc, although it may be that increase in methane input from livestock was most significant in the 3000–1000 bc period, whereas rice paddies become an increasingly significant source especially after 2000 bc.

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Authors: Fuller, D. Q., van Etten, J., Manning, K., Castillo, C., Kingwell-Banham, E., Weisskopf, A., Qin, L., Sato, Y.-I., & Hijmans, R. J.
Affiliations: University College London (GB)
IE University (ES)
Peking University (CN)
National Institutes for the Humanities (JP)
University of California, USA
Corresponding author: Fuller, Dorian Q
ORCID: Fuller, Dorian Q
van Etten, Jacob
Manning, Katie
Castillo, Cristina
Kingwell-Banham, Eleanor
Weisskopf, Alison
Qin, Ling
Hijmans, Robert J
Venue: The Holocene
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2011-06-01
Volume: 21
Issue: 5
Pages: 743-759
ISSN: 0959-6836 (ISSN-L)
1477-0911
DOI: 10.1177/0959683611398052
OpenAlex: W2132016192
Cited by: 235
References: 127
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 9.34
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: The Holocene (publishedVersion)
Funders: Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
Natural Environment Research Council (NE/G005540/1)
Topics: Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Geology and Paleoclimatology Research
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil and Environmental Studies
Keywords: rice cultivation, methane emissions, paddy rice, archaeobotany, water buffalo, cattle, sheep and goats, irrigated rice, Holocene, anthropogenic methane, Yangtze region, India, Thailand

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The contribution of rice agriculture and livestock pastoralism to prehistoric methane levels: An archaeological assessment

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