The DOI matches its Crossref record; 45 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 17 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: The effect of teacher and learner variables
Abstract
Positive psychology has boosted interest in the positive as well as the negative emotions that Foreign Language learners experience. The present study examines whether – and to what extent – foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language (FL) classroom anxiety (FLCA) are linked to a range of learner internal variables and teacher/classroom-specific variables within one specific educational context. Participants were 189 British high school students learning various FLs. Higher levels of FLE were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, FL use in class, proportion of time spent on speaking, relative standing and stage of development. Lower levels FLCA were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, relative standing and stage of development. FLCA thus seems less related to teacher and teacher practices than FLE. The pedagogical implication is that teachers should strive to boost FLE rather than worry too much about students’ FLCA.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This questionnaire study of 189 British high school foreign language learners found that foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) are weakly negatively related and largely separate emotion dimensions. FLE was linked to more learner-internal and teacher/classroom variables than FLCA, leading the authors to advise teachers to focus on boosting enjoyment rather than worrying primarily about anxiety.
Key findings
- FLE and FLCA had a small significant negative correlation, \(r(188) = -.194, p < .007\), sharing only 3.8% of variance; mean FLE was 3.9 (\(SD = 0.6\)) and mean FLCA was 2.4 (\(SD = 0.8\)).
- FLE was significantly linked to age, \(F(6,189) = 4.0, p < .001, \eta^2 = .118\); gender, with females higher than males (4.2 vs. 3.8, \(t = 3.7, p < .0001, d = 0.54\)); FL level, \(F(3,185) = 4.4, p < .005, \eta^2 = .066\); attitude towards the FL, \(F(3,185) = 24.8, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .287, d = 1.27\); attitude towards the teacher, \(F(4,184) = 16.7, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .267, d = 1.2\); teacher FL use, \(F(4,184) = 6.2, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .118, d = .73\); time spent speaking, \(F(6,182) = 2.5, p < .023, \eta^2 = .076\); and teacher predictability negatively, \(F(3,185) = 3.9, p < .001, \eta^2 = .06, d = .50\).
- FLCA was significantly linked to gender, with females higher than males (2.6 vs. 2.3, \(t = 2.5, p < .014, d = 0.37\)); FL level, \(F(3,185) = 12.3, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .166, d = .89\); relative standing among peers, \(F(3,185) = 13.4, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .076, d = .57\); and attitude towards the FL, \(F(3,185) = 4.0, p < .009, \eta^2 = .069, d = .54\). Teacher/classroom variables were mostly unrelated to FLCA.
- Multilingualism was unrelated to both FLE and FLCA. The results section reports relative standing was not significantly linked to FLE, although the abstract and conclusion list it among FLE correlates.
Methods
- Participants were 189 high school students (49 females, 140 males) aged 12–18 from two Greater London schools: Dame Alice Owen’s (\(n = 63\)) and Westminster School (\(n = 126\)); most studied French (\(n = 144\)), and the sample was described as very good FL students.
- An anonymous online questionnaire collected demographics, attitudes towards the FL and teacher, teacher FL use, time spent on reading/writing/listening/speaking, teacher predictability, 10 FLE items from Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014; Cronbach alpha = .88), and 8 FLCA items from the FLCAS (Cronbach alpha = .85), using 5-point Likert scales.
- Analyses included Pearson correlation, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVAs, and Gabriel post-hoc tests, with effect sizes interpreted using Plonsky and Oswald’s benchmarks.
Limitations
- The authors state the design was non-experimental, so they identified relationships without claiming direct causality.
- The authors state self-selection bias may have skewed results positively, that findings may not generalize to the whole FL population, and that participants were very good FL students in selective schools.
- Evident from the text: the sample is gender-imbalanced (49 females vs. 140 males) and drawn from only two selective/top-performing Greater London schools; the paper also contains an inconsistency in which relative standing is listed as an FLE correlate in the abstract/conclusion but reported as non-significant for FLE in the results and Table 1.
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Claims the paper makes
51 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 17 Not checked yet · 7 Own method · 6 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The attitude towards the FL was found to have a significant effect on FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 24.8, p < .0001, eta 2 = .287, Cohen's d = 1.27, which is a large effect size (see figure 5)”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Lower levels FLCA were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, relative standing and stage of development.”
- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 9 · plain
“Relative standing among peers in the FL classroom was also significantly linked to FLCA ( df (3, 185), F = 13.4, p < .0001, eta 2 = .076, Cohen's d = .57 - a small effect size”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 9 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Levels of FLE were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, FL use in class, proportion of time spent on speaking, relative standing and stage of development.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The single-item measures of attitudes towards the foreign language, the foreign language teacher, frequency of foreign language use, time spent on speaking, and predictability are valid measures of those constructs.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two independent t-tests revealed that the 49 female participants scored higher than the 140 males on FLE: (Females Mean = 4.2, SD = 0.5; Males Mean = 3.8, SD = 0.6).”
- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8 · plain
“These differences were significant for FLE ( df = 187, t = 3.7, p < .0001, Cohen's d = 0.54, r 2 = 0.07)”
plaincorrelationaln = 49 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those with very favourable attitudes had significantly higher FLE scores than the three other groups (all p < .0001).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post-hoc Gabriel tests 6 only showed significant differences in FLE between those who labelled themselves as low intermediate and intermediate ( p < .013).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported level of mastery in the foreign language accurately reflects their actual proficiency.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post-hoc Gabriel tests showed that participants who felt below average compared to peers in their class reported more FLCA than those who felt above or far above average ( p < .002 and p < .0001 respectively).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants who felt average also suffered more from FLCA than those who felt above or far above average (all p < .0001).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“High intermediate learners were significantly less anxious than the low intermediate and intermediate groups (both p < .0001).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported level of mastery in the foreign language accurately reflects their actual proficiency.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Female participants also scored higher on FLCA: (Females Mean = 2.6, SD = 0.9; Males Mean = 2.3, SD = 0.7).”
- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8 · plain
“These differences were significant for FLE ( df = 187, t = 3.7, p < .0001, Cohen's d = 0.54, r 2 = 0.07) and for FLCA ( df = 187, t = 2.5, p < .014 Cohen's d = 0.37, r 2 = 0.03) respectively).”
plaincorrelationaln = 49 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8 · plain
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unsurprisingly, students who had a more positive attitude towards the FL reported both significantly more FLE and less FLCA.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A small but significant negative relationship was found, with the dimensions sharing less than 4% of variance.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although all FL students in both schools were contacted through their parents, only a fraction filled out the online questionnaire.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The relationship in the present study was not linear however: the fourteen and fifteen year-olds seemed to enjoy their FL classes least of all.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“More experienced FL learners reported both more FLE and less FLCA, reflecting the finding in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Positive attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, a lot of FL use by the teacher in class, a strong proportion of time spent by students on speaking, a higher relative standing among peers in the FL class and a relative advanced stage of development of the FL all contributed to higher levels of FLE.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The female students reported both more FLE and more FLCA than their male peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“but did have a significant negative effect on FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 3.9, p < .001, eta 2 = .06, Cohen's d = .50 - small effect size (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014) (see figure 10).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Plonsky & Oswald, 2014
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our British secondary school learners reported significantly higher levels of FLE than FLCA, with a weak negative relationship between both.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) pointed out that effects of positive emotion go beyond pleasant feelings: they enhance learners' ability to notice things in classroom environment and strengthen their awareness of language input. This, in turn, allows them to absorb the FL.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In other words, higher levels of FLE seem to be linked to lower levels of FLCA but both dimensions share only 3.8% of variance, a small effect size (cf. Plonsky & Oswald, 2014: 889).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Plonsky & Oswald, 2014
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A moderate negative correlation was found to exist between FLE and FLCA, suggesting that they are partially inter-related but essentially separate dimensions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What remains unexplored is to what extent the same learner-internal and learner-external variables affect both FLCA and FLE within a specific age-range and a single educational context.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These values were positively correlated with self-reported results on their last major FL test ( r (187) = .50, p < .0001).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Dewaele (2005, 2011, 2015) has argued that FL classes are too often emotionally uninteresting or emotion-free which leads to routine, boredom and lack of engagement.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dewaele (2005, 2011, 2015)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“positive emotions can 'broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources' (Fredrickson, 2003, p. 219).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fredrickson, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dörnyei and Ryan (2015) pointed out that despite the fact that emotions play a crucial part in our lives, they have been largely 'shunned' by Second Language Acquisition (SLA) scholars (p. 9).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dörnyei and Ryan (2015)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“FLCA was identified as having a debilitating effect on L2 learning and achievement.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, 1986
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, students were equally anxious with much-loved and lessloved teachers, which suggest that well-loved teachers can create anxiety, but not necessarily more or less anxiety than other teachers - as indicated by a lack of significant differences.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The same phenomenon could be expected for older, more advanced learners who sit their Alevel exams. However, this effect appears to be overridden by students' increased motivation to study the FL, which they have deliberately chosen to pursue at that stage. This group of students is more likely to enjoy the FL classes.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These students may have developed a stronger motivation to master the FL and a more burning desire to invest the time and effort needed to reach that goal.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as we do not claim that our sample is a representative sample of the general FL student population”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We also avoided claims about the extent to which FLE or FLCA could predict un/successful FL learning.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of a statistical effect for these three skills is related to the fact that there was no clear agreement on what the 'optimal' proportion of time would be.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that effective teachers fuel learners' enthusiasm and enjoyment and do not spend too much time worrying about their FLCA.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The non-linear relationship indicates that more is better - up to a point, but that the optimal amount of time spent on speaking is relatively high.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“FLE and FLCA are independent emotion dimensions with a very small amount of overlap.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The awareness of not being as good as the peers is an obvious source of social anxiety.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They were therefore more likely to enjoy the challenge of having to function in the FL with little L1 use.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings were interpreted as an indication that the female learners were more emotionally involved in the FL learning, experiencing more emotional highs and lows than their male peers.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is likely that those who did not feel strongly about their FL classes were less willing to spend 20 minutes filling out a detailed questionnaire about their FL classroom experiences.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to point out that we identified relationships between variables without claiming direct causality.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants' self-reported level of mastery in the foreign language accurately reflects their actual proficiency.
“Participants were also asked about the point they had reached in their FL journey. Very few described themselves as 'beginner' ( n = 2), more so as 'low intermediate' ( n = 21), 'intermediate', ( n = 58), 'high intermediate' ( n = 92), and 'advanced' ( n = 26).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The single-item measures of attitudes towards the foreign language, the foreign language teacher, frequency of foreign language use, time spent on speaking, and predictability are valid measures of those constructs.
“The questionnaire started with a demographics section from which the above information was retrieved. Following this, participants were asked to respond to an item on their attitude towards their first modern FL (as some students learned two FLs simultaneously), on a 5-point Likert scale.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The participants provided objective reports of actual teacher behaviour of close to 38 teachers.
“we assume that our participants provided us with objective reports of actual teacher behaviour of close to 38 teachers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.
“When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Other independent variables undoubtedly affect the overall picture, such as significantly reduced class sizes, more informal pupil-teacher relationships and greater maturity.
“Other independent variables undoubtedly affect the overall picture, such as significantly reduced class sizes, more informal pupil-teacher relationships and greater maturity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Some teachers do, consciously or unconsciously, cause anxiety.
“Even if the teachers in the present study did not seem to cause heightened anxiety, some teachers do, consciously or unconsciously cause anxiety.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“More specifically, pupils liked teachers who used the FL frequently in class, who were unpredictable, and who gave students the opportunity to speak up.”
From Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach (2023) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al. (2018)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Through building on positive emotions, language teachers can concurrently decrease foreign language anxiety and increase foreign language enjoyment in their learners (Dewaele et al., 2018; Dewaele and Dewaele, 2020).”
From Researching and Practicing Positive Psychology in Second/Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: The Past, Current Status and Future Directions (2021) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A large body of literature suggests that ESL/EFL students' anxiety is related to their overall proficiency and attitude toward the language learned (see Dewaele et al., 2018; Shao et al., 2013).”
From Investigating How 'The Writing Revolution' and Task Complexity Can Enhance Secondary TESOL Students’ Expository Writing (2024) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The authors found that the pupils from two secondary schools in London with the highest level of FLE reported more positive attitudes toward the FL and the FL teacher.”
From Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach (2023) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al. (2018)
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“These studies have overwhelmingly found large positive correlations between FLE and WTC (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018;Khajavy et al., 2018), leading Dewaele (2019) to conclude that teachers may boost WTC in the FL classroom by creating a positive environment in which FLE may flourish.”
From Taking stock: A meta-analysis of the effects of foreign language enjoyment (2022) · cites this paper as Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“r (188) = -.194, p < .007”
Reported p < .007 · recomputed p = .007
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upr(188) = -0.194reported p < .007 · recomputed p = .007
“r (188) = -.194, p < .007”
- Consistentr(187) = 0.5reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“r (187) = .50, p < .0001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ VII Conclusion · p. 13
“Positive attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, a lot of FL use by the teacher in class, a strong proportion of time spent by students on speaking, a higher relative standing among peers in the FL class and a relative advanced stage of development of the FL all contributed to higher levels of FLE.”
§ INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 9
“Relative standing among peers in the FL classroom was also significantly linked to FLCA ( df (3, 185), F = 13.4, p < .0001, eta 2 = .076, Cohen's d = .57 - a small effect size (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014) (see figure 4), but not to FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 2.3, p = ns ).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Very few described themselves as 'beginner' ( n = 2), more so as 'low intermediate' ( n = 21), 'intermediate', ( n = 58), 'high intermediate' ( n = 92), and 'advanced' ( n = 26).”
Reported 189 · recomputed 199
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Most participants were studying French as a FL ( n = 144, 68%)”
Reported 68 · recomputed 76.190476
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“One-way ANOVAs revealed that age had no effect on FLCA ( df (6, 189), F = .6, p = ns ) but did have a significant effect on FLE ( df (6, 189), F = 4.0, p < .001, eta 2 = .118)”
Reported 189 · recomputed 182
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ II The instrument · p. 7
“(ranging from 'very unfavourable' ( n = 9), 'unfavourable' ( n = 10), 'neutral' ( n = 10), 'favourable' ( n = 78), to 'very favourable' ( n = 74) attitudes”
§ III Teacher-centred variables · p. 9
“attitude towards the teacher had a significant effect on FLE ( df (4, 184), F = 16.7”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ II The instrument · p. 7
“(ranging from 'very unpredictable' ( n = 3), 'unpredictable' ( n = 22), 'medium un/ unpredictable' ( n = 92), 'predictable' ( n = 52), to 'very predictable' (n = 13).”
§ INSERT FIGURE 9 · p. 10
“Teacher predictability was found to have no effect on FLCA ( df (3, 185), F = .2, p = ns ) but did have a significant negative effect on FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 3.9”
Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Dewaele, J.-M., Witney, J., Saito, K., & Dewaele, L.
- Affiliations
- University of London (GB)
- Westminster School, London, UK
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Dewaele, Jean-Marc
- Venue
- Language Teaching Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-02-17
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 676-697
- ISSN
- 1362-1688 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-0954
- OpenAlex
- W2588952674
- Semantic Scholar
- f30fe7299637b69f637cfb9382334c970cbc85af
- Cited by
- 780
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 74 · 2025: 134 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 6
- FWCI
- 154.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Language Teaching Research (publishedVersion)
- BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Second Language Learning and Teaching
- Keywords
- foreign language enjoyment, foreign language classroom anxiety, student attitudes, teacher attitudes, relative standing, developmental stages, speaking time, teacher practices, high school students, positive psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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