The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 35 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Data Colonialism: Rethinking Big Data’s Relation to the Contemporary Subject
Open accessAbstract
We are often told that data are the new oil. But unlike oil, data are not a substance found in nature. It must be appropriated. The capture and processing of social data unfolds through a process we call data relations, which ensures the “natural” conversion of daily life into a data stream. The result is nothing less than a new social order, based on continuous tracking, and offering unprecedented new opportunities for social discrimination and behavioral influence. We propose that this process is best understood through the history of colonialism. Thus, data relations enact a new form of data colonialism, normalizing the exploitation of human beings through data, just as historic colonialism appropriated territory and resources and ruled subjects for profit. Data colonialism paves the way for a new stage of capitalism whose outlines we only glimpse: the capitalization of life without limit.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Digital platforms are the technological means that produce a new type of 'social' for capital: that is, the social in a form that can be continuously tracked, captured, sorted and counted for value as 'data'.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“So too with what we now call 'personal data', but which is the outcome, not the precondition or prior target, of a newly 'computed sociality' (Alaimo and Kallinikos 2016).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Alaimo and Kallinikos 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Yet, in spite of the huge complexity of the Social Quantification Sector, the parallels between the fictions that operationalised the dispossessions of historical colonialism and those that work today to enable data colonialism are striking.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The platform, we argue, produces the social for capital, that is, a form of 'social' that is ready for appropriation and exploitation for value as data, when combined with other data similarly appropriated.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and, even more fundamentally, the flow of everyday life must be reconfigured and re-presented in a form that enables its capture as data.”
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In the paper
“Natural resources were and are not cheap per se, but legal and philosophical frameworks were established to rationalize them as such, on the basis that they were 'just there.'”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Rather than an expansion of the labor process, the better analogy is with the appropriation of physical nature within processes of capitalist production (Moore 2015).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moore 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Through this discursive move, the links of data back to a prior process of data collection (that is, appropriation) are obscured.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Arvidsson (2016) analyses well the technical methods of extracting value from platform data as a form of financialization, but the more basic move is the appropriation of the social itself.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arvidsson 2016 source
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In the paper
“Personal data of many sorts is appropriated for ends which are not themselves 'personal.'”
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 77
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“More helpful are approaches which see what is going on with data as a form of fundamental appropriation of resource (Greene and Joseph 2015;Thatcher et al. 2016, drawing on Harvey 2004) or extraction (Mezzadra and Neilson 2017).”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Greene and Joseph 2015 source
Section 5.1, “The Primitive Accumulation of Time” (page unavailable), describes users’ activity being enclosed, recorded, and sold to data brokers and advertisers. It also calls the capture of personal data and users’ time a form of primitive accumulation, supporting the cited characterization of data practices as appropriation. The citing sentence attributes the separate term “extraction” to Mezzadra and Neilson, not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thatcher et al. 2016 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mezzadra and Neilson 2017 source
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- Supported
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In the paper
“Management theorists Alaimo and Kallinikos (2017) note, in an analysis of retail fashion platforms, that data doubles are the building blocks for new 'social objects': data-rich constructs arranged in complex categories which corporations can target and influence.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Alaimo and Kallinikos (2017) source
In “Contingent categories and the social context of classification” (page unavailable), the paper describes new social objects as digital representations of consumers produced through data clustering and continually recategorized. The Abstract and “Encoding, aggregation, and computation” (pages unavailable) explain that these representations make users actionable through personalized content and targeted advertising. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“second, data about one individual's actions or properties at one moment needs to be combined with data about other actions, moments, and properties to generate valuable relations between data points (Arvidsson 2016;Thatcher et al. 2016, 995).”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“The purpose of this proclamation, read in Spanish by conquistadors to a non-Spanish speaking audience, was to introduce the natives to the strange new world order they were about to be colonized under, and to demand their simple acceptance (or face extermination, which frequently arrived regardless of compliance).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bartolomé de las Casas (1951, 58)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These global flows of data are as expansive as historic colonialism's appropriation of land, resources, and bodies, although the epicentre has somewhat shifted.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data colonialism involves not one pole of colonial power ('the West'), but at least two: the USA and China.”
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In the paper
“The force of the Requerimiento depended on an effective monopoly of physical force.Today's 'muscle' lies in various forms of economic concentration, one of which is the digital platform.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Since the purpose of 'social' media platforms is to encourage ever more of our activities and inner thoughts to occur on platforms, there is, in principle, no limit to the appropriation, since what is appropriated is what is increasingly constructed to be ready for appropriation.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But that gives us no grip at all on data colonialism, which appropriates life as raw material whether or not it is actually labor, or even labor-like.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, the new data colonialism works both externally -on a global scale -and internally on its own home populations.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just as industrial capitalism would not have happened without the prior appropriation under historical colonialism of vast territories, their 'natural' resources and bodies, so we are today witnessing the first stage of another long-term double development: the colonial appropriation of life in general and its annexation to capital, through various mechanisms of which one is the digital platform.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Historical colonialism provided the essential preconditions for the emergence of industrial capitalism, including through prior appropriation of vast territories, natural resources and bodies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Simultaneously, a political rationality operates to position society as the natural beneficiary of corporations' extractive efforts, just as humanity was supposed to benefit from historical colonialism as a 'civilizational' project.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Understanding Big Data from the Global South means understanding capitalism's current dependence on this new type of appropriation that works at every point in space where people or things are attached to today's infrastructures of connection.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Extractive rationalities need to be naturalized or normalized”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The scale of this transformation means that it is premature to map the forms of capitalism that will emerge from it on a global scale.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The elites of data colonialism (think of Facebook) benefit from colonization in both dimensions, and North-South, East-West divisions no longer matter in the same way.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Jason Moore (2015) argues that capitalism historically depended on the availability of cheap nature: natural resources that are abundant, easy to appropriate from their rightful owners, and whose depletion is seen as unproblematic, but whose 'availability to capital' itself had to be constructed through elaborate means of marketization.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moore 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just as historical colonialism over the long-run provided the essential preconditions for the emergence of industrial capitalism, so over time, we can expect that data colonialism will provide the preconditions for a new stage of capitalism that as yet we can barely imagine, but for which the appropriation of human life through data will be central.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Historical colonialism provided the essential preconditions for the emergence of industrial capitalism, including through prior appropriation of vast territories, natural resources and bodies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Through what we call 'data relations' (new types of human relations which enable the extraction of data for commodification), social life all over the globe becomes an 'open' resource for extraction that is somehow 'just there' for capital.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is not simply a matter of harvesting a natural resource: first, life needs to be configured so as to generate such a resource”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Today, in the era of data colonialism, we are accustomed to similarly incomprehensible documents called Terms of Service, which contain outlandish appropriative claims by corporations.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is also a practical rationality that frames corporations as the only ones with the power and capacity to process (and thus appropriate) data.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“The vast reorganization of human life implied by data colonialism could not happen without a broader shift in social relations.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data colonialism combines the predatory extractive practices of historical colonialism with the abstract quantification methods of computing.”
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In the paper
“But because this appropriation makes us all subjects of capital in distinctive new ways, the most useful overall framing here is of a new phase of colonialism that is deeply intertwined with the long-term development of capitalism.”
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In the paper
“That frame is colonialism, used here not as a mere metaphor, 1 nor as an echo or simple continuation of historic forms of territorial colonialism, 2 but to refer to a new form of colonialism distinctive of the 21 st century: data colonialism.”
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In the paper
“Whatever the form of force used, its effect now, as then, is through the discursive act that accompanies it to embed subjects inescapably into relations of colonization.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is another aspect of data colonialism that, alongside aspects just covered -resource appropriation, ideology, and corporate concentration of profits -matches the features of historic colonialism”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Underlying such variations, capitalism affirms the uniquely identifiable reference-point on which all notions of the self rest; it is this 'self' whose market potential gets traded in proxy form.”
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In the paper
“Machine-to-machine connections significantly deepen the new web of social knowledge production.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if, under data colonialism, we are all destined to become data subjects -that is, parties to regular data relations -what this means for one person may be very different from what it means for another.”
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In the paper
“This reality, which each subject can recognise in each other, cannot be traded away without endangering the basic conditions of human autonomy.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But it does mean rejecting the form of resource appropriation and accompanying social order that most contemporary data practice represents.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the hollowed out social world of data colonialism, data practices invade the space of the self by making tracking a permanent feature of life, expanding and deepening the basis on which human beings can exploit each other.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“You or we will be uniquely identified by multiple corporations using different sets of data features, each sufficient to prompt a distinctive action.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Today, data colonialism is changing society by transforming human life into a new abstracted social form that is also ripe for commodification: data.”
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In the paper
“Recognizing this dispossession is the start of resistance to data colonialism.”
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In the paper
“The force of Quijano's point remains, even when, in the bipolar world of US-China data domination, colonialism starts to operate well beyond the confines of European traditions.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Quijano
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If successful, this transformation will leave no discernable 'outside' to capitalist production: everyday life will have become directly incorporated into the capitalist process of production.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is the key point: the audacious yet largely disguised corporate attempt to incorporate all of life, whether or not conceived by those doing it as 'production,' into an expanded process for the generation of surplus value.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“'Data' are abstractions from the processes of human life.”
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In the paper
“But in those cultures, the perspective of totality in knowledge includes the acknowledgement of the heterogeneity of all reality; of the irreducible, contradictory character of the latter; of the legitimacy, i.e., the desirability of the diverse character of the components of all reality -and therefore, of the social.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Quijano 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“What must be abandoned is the claim to absolute universality that Quijano sees as characteristic of European modernity, and which we find reproduced in data colonialism, and its logics of universal data extraction and management of human beings through data.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Quijano
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Human life itself is being progressively capitalized in new ways whose detail, extent and precision go far beyond earlier general predictions of the capitalization of life.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meanwhile, data are being increasingly commodified.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is particularly important when we can be sure the costs and consequences of dispossession through data will be distributed unevenly, especially when it comes to surveillance.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Human inputs are only part of the territory that data colonialism seeks to annex to human capital.”
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In the paper
“This reinterpretation of Marx 'for a post-Marxist age' (as Postone puts it) emphasizes that it is the abstracting force of the commodity, the possibility of transforming life process into 'things' with value, that is the fundamental characteristic of capitalism.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Postone
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Outside the 'West', virtually in all known cultures… all systematic production of knowledge is associated with a perspective of totality.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Quijano 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data colonialism means that new social relations (data relations, which generate raw inputs to information processing) become a key means whereby new forms of economic value are created.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These 'soft' nudges towards datafication converge in marketers' favoured strategy of gamification.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By installing automated surveillance into the space of the self, we risk losing the very thing that constitutes us as selves at all, that is, the open-ended space where we continuously transform over time.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What needs defending is not individualistic self-rule, but rather the minimal, socially grounded integrity of the self without which we do not recognise ourselves and others as selves at all.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rejecting data colonialism does not mean rejecting data collection and use in all its forms.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This vision rejects the idea that the continuous collection of data from human beings is natural, let alone rational; and so rejects the idea that the results of data processing are a naturally occurring form of social knowledge, rather than a commercially motivated form of extraction that advances particular economic and/or governance interests.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The integrity of the self as the entity that can make and reflect on choices in a complex world is essential to all Western liberal notions of freedom.7 .”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The means for this transformation are -to reiterate -not labor relations, but, more broadly, commodified social relations, or, more succinctly, data relations.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these transformations represent something approaching the appropriation for capital of the whole domain of social life and much of individual life too, an appropriation that constitutes the colonial moment of contemporary capitalism.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“To Quijano, the point was not merely to move past the colonial through the 'postcolonial,' but to challenge fundamentally colonialism's legitimacy through 'decolonial' ways of thinking.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Quijano
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data are not abstracted from us automatically, but through social relations to which at some point, even if retrospectively, we are assumed to have consented.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The expansion of data colonialism is a problem for all human subjects, indeed for human development as such.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since this transformation cannot even start without the appropriative moment of data colonialism, it is important to consider how dispossession feels from the perspective of the objects of that appropriation: human beings.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A continuously trackable life is a dispossessed life, no matter how one looks at it.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are multiple forms of encouragement into data relations: from the rituals of routine selftracking on platforms where we count our followers or likes, 4 to exemplary performance (the Olympic athletes who tell us how they track themselves).”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But, at the same time, capitalism erodes a core element in the content of that identified self whose continuity (and change) we value through time.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is a real person who gets offered a favourable price in the supermarket, an opportunity for social housing, or a legal penalty, all based on algorithmic reasoning.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even if, under data colonialism, we are all destined to become data subjects -that is, parties to regular data relations -what this means for one person may be very different from what it means for another.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even though the new social knowledge is produced through operations that bypass human beings, it is actual human beings, not 'doubles,' who are tethered to the discriminations that such knowledge generates.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Quijano focussed on the legacy of historic colonialism, but his diagnosis is of enormous importance for addressing data colonialism too.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Quijano
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Media platforms like Netflix are based on the structuring of content production and marketing around the data doubles produced through relentless data harvesting and processing, all of which suggests customization and convenience for the user.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practical starting-point for resistance to data colonialism is a vision that, until 20 years ago, would have been indisputable, but now, strangely, appears counter-intuitive to many.”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This minimal integrity of the self is valued by all philosophical traditions.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Before the internet, as Bruce Schneier (2015, 27-28) notes, data sources about social life were limited to company customer records, responses to direct marketing, credit bureau data, and government public records (we might add insurance company data on their insured).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schneier (2015)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are various reasons for this inequality: some relate to how the intensity of surveillance is allocated, and others relate to individuals' relative ability to repair the costs of surveillance over the long-run.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The value of those extractive processes depends on the comprehensiveness of the data generated.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But what human beings do when they are tracked and when data is extracted from them during social interactions is not a new type of labor, although it can be appropriated, abstracted, and commodified all the same.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This vision rejects the idea that the continuous collection of data from human beings is natural, let alone rational; and so rejects the idea that the results of data processing are a naturally occurring form of social knowledge, rather than a commercially motivated form of extraction that advances particular economic and/or governance interests.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is the new and distinctive role of platforms and other environments of routine data extraction.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The bare reality of the self as a self 6 comes to be at stake.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We reach here the core of what is wrong with data colonialism's new order: its vision of totality.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is exactly this alternative vision of order and totality that datafication denies, as it categorises subjects and builds societies towards total algorithmic control.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This labor-power acquires the necessary measurable dimension to be exchanged in the market.In this way, workers' labor power becomes something they can sell as a commodity.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Marx
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The goal is not to abandon rationality or even the claim to 'some universality.'”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The extraction of data from bodies, things and systems creates new possibilities for managing everything.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What decolonial thinking in particular can help us grasp is that colonialism -whether in its historic or new form -can only be opposed effectively if it is attacked at its core: the underlying rationality that enables continuous appropriation to seem natural, necessary and somehow an enhancement of, not a violence to, human development.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The goal is clear: to install into every tool for human living the capacity to continuously and autonomously collect and transmit data within privately controlled systems of uncertain security.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Historical colonialism provided the essential preconditions for the emergence of industrial capitalism, including through prior appropriation of vast territories, natural resources and bodies.
“Just as historical colonialism over the long-run provided the essential preconditions for the emergence of industrial capitalism”
“Just as industrial capitalism would not have happened without the prior appropriation under historical colonialism of vast territories, their 'natural' resources and bodies”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Most AI-XR tools emerge from Global North infrastructures, meaning that reframing Global Majority memories without genuine local control risks reinforcing digital colonialism (Ávila Pinto, 2018;Couldry and Mejias, 2018;Vijayakumar, 2024).”
From Mediating memory through immersive technologies and artificial intelligence: revisiting individual and collectively co-created pasts and futures (2026) · cites this paper as Couldry and Mejias, 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Instead, it calls for what Couldry and Mejias (2019) term a decolonial reversal, reclaiming the”
From Data colonialism and indigenous languages in AI: a critical review of existing initiatives and their struggles with data sovereignty (2026) · cites this paper as Couldry & Mejias 2019
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Couldry and Mejias (2019) conceptualize this dynamic as data colonialism, wherein everyday cultural expression is commodified without reciprocity, further entrenching unequal structures of ownership and control.”
From Fanfiction in the Age of AI: Community Perspectives on Creativity, Authenticity and Adoption (2026) · cites this paper as Couldry and Mejias (2019)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The lack of co-governance and the unremunerated reuse of these texts echo Couldry and Mejias's account of data colonialism, in which extractive practices associated with”
From Data colonialism and indigenous languages in AI: a critical review of existing initiatives and their struggles with data sovereignty (2026) · cites this paper as Couldry & Mejias 2019
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Coined by Couldry and Mejias (2019), data colonialism refers to “the massive appropriation of social life through data extraction”, a process that represents “a new colonial move” in which human experiences become a resource to be mined for economic value (Couldry and Mejias 2019).”
From Data colonialism and indigenous languages in AI: a critical review of existing initiatives and their struggles with data sovereignty (2026) · cites this paper as Couldry and Mejias 2019
In the citing paper
“Finally, smart home applications present security and privacy risks [144] that require adequate regulation.”
From Tackling climate change with machine learning (2023) · cites this paper as [144]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Thatcher and colleagues' citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text repeatedly cites Thatcher and colleagues as 2016, while the corresponding reference is dated 2017.
“(Arvidsson 2016;Thatcher et al. 2016, 995)”
“Thatcher, Jim, David O'Sullivan and Dillon Mahmoudi. "Data Colonialism Through Accumulation by Dispossession: New Metaphors for Daily Data". Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 34, no. 6 (2017): 990-1006.”
Alaimo and Kallinikos citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text cites Alaimo and Kallinikos as 2016, while their listed work is dated 2017.
“(Alaimo and Kallinikos 2016)”
“Alaimo, Cristina, and Jannis Kallinikos. "Computing the Everyday: Social Media as Data Platforms." The Information Society 33, no. 4 (2017): 175-191.”
Srnicek citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text cites Srnicek as 2016, but the reference list dates the cited book to 2017.
“(Cohen 2017;Srnicek 2016;Zuboff 2015)”
“Srnicek, Nick. Platform Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity, 2017.”
Gitelman citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text cites Gitelman as 2010, but the reference list dates the listed work to 2013.
“( Gitelman 2010)”
“Gitelman, Lisa, ed. "Raw Data" is an Oxymoron. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013.”
Cowen citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text cites Cowen as 2015, whereas the listed book is dated 2014.
“(Cowen 2015)”
“Cowen, Deborah. The Deadly Life of Logistics. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.”
O'Neil citation year differs from reference
MinorThe text cites O'Neil as 2015, but the listed book is dated 2016.
“(Eubanks 2018;O'Neil 2015)”
“O'Neil, Cathy. Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. London: Allen Lane, 2016.”
Gerlitz and Helmond citation year differs from reference
MinorThe additional notes cite Gerlitz and Helmond as 2015, but their listed work is dated 2013.
“4 Gerlitz and Helmond (2015).”
“Gerlitz, Carolin, and Anne Helmond. "The Like Economy: Social Buttons and the Data-intensive Web." New Media & Society 15, no. 8 (2013): 1348-1365.”
Citations
Cites
Agamben, G. (2020) · Stanford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780804764025 · Cited by 7,081
COLONIALITY AND MODERNITY/RATIONALITY
Quijano, A. (2007) · Cultural Studies · doi:10.1080/09502380601164353 · Cited by 3,747
Big other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization
Zuboff, S. (2015) · Journal of Information Technology · doi:10.1057/jit.2015.5 · Cited by 3,205
Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy
Doyle, T. (2017) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2017.1354593 · Cited by 3,111
Gillespie, T. (2010) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444809342738 · Cited by 2,522 · cited 1×
“First, colonial history helps us see the emergence of digital platforms as more than business invention, or even new forms of economic control through multisided markets (Cohen 2018; Gillespie 2010; Rieder and Sire 2014).”
BackgroundCapitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the Accumulation of Capital
Boscov-Ellen, D. (2016) · Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal · doi:10.5840/gfpj201637226 · Cited by 2,461
Haggerty, K. D., & Ericson, R. V. (2000) · The British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1080/00071310020015280 · Cited by 2,244
Terranova, T. (2000) · Social Text · doi:10.1215/01642472-18-2_63-33 · Cited by 1,749 · cited 1×
“…arguments from four or five decades ago that the capitalist organization of work had extended from the factory to the whole of society: the well-known Autonomist notion of the “social factory” (Gill and Pratt 2008; Terranova 2000; Tronti 1966; more recently, Hardt and Negri 2017; Lazzarato 2014).”
BackgroundThe algorithmic imaginary: exploring the ordinary affects of Facebook algorithms
Bucher, T. (2016) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2016.1154086 · Cited by 1,420
In the Social Factory?: Immaterial Labour, Precariousness and Cultural Work
Gill, R., & Pratt, A. (2008) · Theory, Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/0263276408097794 · Cited by 1,361
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 17
- Arora Payal, 2016, International Journal of Communication, 10
- Cohen Julie E., 2016, Participatory Condition
- 10.5749/minnesota/9780816680870.001.0001 · DOI
- de las Casas Bartolomé. 1951. Historia de Las Indias [History of the Indies]. Vol. 3. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica.
- Dussel Enrique, 1985, Philosophy of Liberation
- Eubanks Virginia, 2018, Automating Inequality
- Greene Daniel Marcus, 2015, Triple C, 13
- Hardt Michael, 2017, Assembly
- Harvey David, 2004, Socialist Register, 40, 63
- Marx Karl, 1976, Capital, Volume I
- Mayer-Schonberger Viktor, 2013, Big Data
- Postone Moishe, 1998, Reclaiming the Sociological Classics
- Schneier Bruce, 2015, Data and Goliath
- Scholz Trebor, 2013, Digital Labor: The Internet as Playground and Factory
- Smythe Dallas W., 1977, Canadian Journal of Political and Social Theory, 1, 1
- Srnicek Nick, 2016, Platform Capitalism
- Tronti Mario, 1966, Operai E Capitale
Cited by
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Items 1,501–1,600 of 1,610
Olatoye, T. A., Fru, R. N., & Magadlela, A. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-9365-0.ch005
Hila, A. A. (2026) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-026-01168-4 · Cited by 1
Gomez, A. (2024) · Critical Reflections Journal for Philosophy and Social Sciences · doi:10.65932/cr-2024-1-3
Muduva, M., Kiwa, F. J., Masengu, R., Mangwiro, P. E., Magaya, T. K., & Garwi, J. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83742-268-520260015
Zakarneh, B. M., Ahmed, Z. A. T., & Alrefaee, Y. M. H. (2026) · Cogent Arts and Humanities · doi:10.1080/23311983.2026.2719067
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Paakkari, A., Paananen, M., & Siippainen, A. (2026) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2026.2723506
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Sharma, K., & Kaur, H. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7118-4.ch001
Erbil, C., & Özbilgin, M. F. (2026) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2026.08.006
Artificial Imitation in Education
Barrón, N. G., & Gruber, S. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-3840-6.ch003
Leite, F., Gonçalvez, I. X., Moherdaui, L., de Azevedo, T. L., & Silva, T. T. (2026) · Emerging Media · doi:10.1177/27523543261478250
Commodifying compassion in the digital age: The promise and perils of tech for good
Atal, M. R., Henriksen, S., & Richey, L. A. (2026) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517261470748
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Williams, T., & Elzway, S. (2026) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-026-01432-9
Ibarra, E. O. (2026) · Warisata - Revista de Educación · doi:10.33996/warisata.v8i23.2
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Metadata
- Authors
- Couldry, N., & Mejias, U. A.
- Affiliations
- London School of Economics and Political Science (GB)
- State University of New York at Oswego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mejias, Ulises A.
- Venue
- Television & New Media
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-09-02
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 336-349
- ISSN
- 1527-4764 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8316
- OpenAlex
- W2889315866
- Semantic Scholar
- d22e8ae8236a669053c4646b4859cdf1fadb64c2
- Cited by
- 1,617
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 366 · 2025: 260 · 2024: 214 · 2023: 244 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 157.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- orcid.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Television & New Media (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Communication › Cultural Studies and Postmodernism
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Big Data Technologies and Applications
- Keywords
- data colonialism, big data, contemporary subject, colonialism, social data, surveillance, social discrimination, behavioral influence, capitalism, data exploitation
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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