Residential self-selection bias in the estimation of built environment effects on physical activity between adolescence and young adulthood
Open accessAbstract
Background: Built environment research is dominated by cross-sectional designs, which are particularly vulnerable to residential self-selection bias resulting from health-related attitudes, neighborhood preferences, or other unmeasured characteristics related to both neighborhood choice and health-related outcomes. Methods: We used cohort data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (United States; Wave I, 1994-95; Wave III, 2001-02; n = 12,701) and a time-varying geographic information system. Longitudinal relationships between moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) bouts and built and socioeconomic environment measures (landcover diversity, pay and public physical activity facilities per 10,000 population, street connectivity, median household income, and crime rate) from adolescence to young adulthood were estimated using random effects models (biased by unmeasured confounders) and fixed effects models (within-person estimator, which adjusts for unmeasured confounders that are stable over time). Results: Random effects models yielded null associations except for negative crime-MVPA associations [coefficient (95% CI): -0.056 (-0.083, -0.029) in males, -0.061 (-0.090, -0.033) in females]. After controlling for measured and time invariant unmeasured characteristics using within-person estimators, MVPA was higher with greater physical activity pay facilities in males [coefficient (95% CI): 0.024 (0.006, 0.042)], and lower with higher crime rates in males [coefficient (95% CI): -0.107 (-0.140, -0.075)] and females [coefficient (95% CI): -0.046 (-0.083, -0.009)]. Other associations were null or in the counter-intuitive direction. Conclusions: Comparison of within-person estimates to estimates unadjusted for unmeasured characteristics suggest that residential self-selection can bias associations toward the null, as opposed to its typical characterization as a positive confounder. Differential environment-MVPA associations by residential relocation suggest that studies examining changes following residential relocation may be vulnerable to selection bias. The authors discuss complexities of adjusting for residential self-selection and residential relocation, particularly during the adolescent to young adult transition.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health suggest some positive associations between green space coverage or availability of physical activity facilities and physical activity among US adolescents but with somewhat varying findings depending on environment measure, physical activity outcome, and sex.
“Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health suggest some positive associations between green space coverage or availability of physical activity facilities and physical activity among US adolescents but with somewhat varying findings, depending on the environment measure, the physical activity outcome, and sex.345–348”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [346]
In the same large US cohort of adolescents, street connectivity was unrelated to moderate to vigorous physical activity in longitudinal analyses.
“In the US cohort, street connectivity was positively related to moderate to vigorous physical activity in cross-sectional analyses, with variation by urbanicity and by sex,348 but was unrelated to moderate to vigorous physical activity in longitudinal analyses.”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [346]
In the US study, neighborhood crime safety rates were found to be inversely related to bouts of moderate to vigorous physical activity in both males and females.
“In the US study, neighborhood crime safety (rates) were found to be inversely related to bouts of moderate to vigorous physical activity in both males and females.”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [346]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Microeconometrics: Methods and Applications
Cameron, A. C., & Trivedi, P. K. (2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511811241 · Cited by 8,092 · see citing works
Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata
Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2005) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.1541-0420.2006.00588_16.x · Cited by 4,626 · see citing works
Travel demand and the 3Ds: Density, diversity, and design
Cervero, R., & Kockelman, K. M. (1997) · Transportation Research Part D Transport and Environment · doi:10.1016/s1361-9209(97)00009-6 · Cited by 4,601 · see citing works
Willett, W. C. (1998) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195122978.001.0001 · Cited by 4,541 · see citing works
The Geography of Transport Systems
Rodrigue, J. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429346323 · Cited by 2,979 · see citing works
Protecting Adolescents From Harm: Findings From the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health
Resnick, M. D. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550100049038 · Cited by 2,846 · see citing works
A structural approach to selection bias
Hernán, M. A., Hernández-Díaz, S., & Robins, J. M. (2004) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000135174.63482.43 · Cited by 2,844 · cited 2× · see citing works
“However, distinguishing between selection bias and differential confounding is complex and requires future research using analytical methods such as marginal structural models that can address relocation status without inducing selection bias through covariate adjustment or stratification [17].”
BackgroundMethodSaelens, B., Sallis, J., & Frank, L. (2003) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15324796abm2502_03 · Cited by 2,510 · see citing works
Built Environment Correlates of Walking: A Review
SAELENS, B. E., & HANDY, S. L. (2008) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31817c67a4 · Cited by 1,912 · see citing works
Gordon‐Larsen, P., Laska, M. N., Page, P., & Popkin, B. M. (2006) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0058 · Cited by 1,765 · see citing works
Self-citationCounterfactuals and Causal Inference: Methods and Principles for Social Research
Morgan, S. L., & Winship, C. (2007) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511804564 · Cited by 1,146 · see citing works
The Geography of Transport Systems
Rodrigue, J., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315618159 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
A Physical Activity Screening Measure for Use With Adolescents in Primary Care
Prochaska, J. J., Sallis, J. F., & Long, B. (2001) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.155.5.554 · Cited by 1,036 · see citing works
Protecting Adolescents From Harm
Hojat, M. (1998) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.279.5.353 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behavior: A focus on methodologies
Mokhtarian, P. L., & Cao, X. (2007) · Transportation Research Part B Methodological · doi:10.1016/j.trb.2007.07.006 · Cited by 829 · see citing works
Fixed Effects Regression Methods for Longitudinal Data Using SAS
Neuhaus, J. M. (2006) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/jasa.2006.s118 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Estabrooks, P. A., Lee, R. E., & Gyurcsik, N. C. (2003) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15324796abm2502_05 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
Giles‐Corti, B., Timperio, A. F., Bull, F., & Pikora, T. (2005) · Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews · doi:10.1097/00003677-200510000-00005 · Cited by 689 · see citing works
Potential environmental determinants of physical activity in adults: a systematic review
Wendel‐Vos, W., Droomers, M., Kremers, S., Brug, J., & Van Lenthe, F. (2007) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2007.00370.x · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Fixed Effects Regression Methods for Longitudinal Data Using SAS®
(2006) · Technometrics · doi:10.1198/tech.2006.s370 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Bhat, C. R., & Guo, J. Y. (2006) · Transportation Research Part B Methodological · doi:10.1016/j.trb.2005.12.005 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
Availability of Recreational Resources in Minority and Low Socioeconomic Status Areas
Moore, L. V., Roux, A. V. D., Evenson, K. R., McGinn, A. P., & Brines, S. J. (2008) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.09.021 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Self-citationResidential Relocation and Changes in Urban Travel: Does Neighborhood-Scale Urban Form Matter?
Krizek, K. J. (2003) · Journal of the American Planning Association · doi:10.1080/01944360308978019 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Powell, L. M., Slater, S., Chaloupka, F. J., & Harper, D. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.065573 · Cited by 544 · see citing works
Neighborhood selection and the social reproduction of concentrated racial inequality
Sampson, R., & Sharkey, P. (2008) · Demography · doi:10.1353/dem.2008.0012 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., & Handy, S. (2007) · Transportation · doi:10.1007/s11116-007-9132-x · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Sallis, J. F., Strikmiller, P. K., Harsha, D. W., Feldman, H. A., Ehlinger, S., Stone, E. J., Williston, J. M., & Woods, S. E. (1996) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-199607000-00011 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
The Health Status of Young Adults in the United States
Park, M. J., Mulye, T. P., Adams, S. H., Brindis, C. D., & Irwin, C. E. (2006) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.04.017 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Clarke, P. J. (2008) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2007.060798 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Availability of Recreational Resources and Physical Activity in Adults
Roux, A. V. D., Evenson, K. R., McGinn, A. P., Brown, D. G., Moore, L. V., Brines, S. J., & Jacobs, D. R. (2007) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2006.087734 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Self-citationUrban Form Relationships with Walk Trip Frequency and Distance among Youth
Frank, L. D., Kerr, J., Chapman, J., & Sallis, J. F. (2007) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-21.4s.305 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Schwanen, T., & Mokhtarian, P. L. (2005) · Transportation Research Part D Transport and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.trd.2004.11.002 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Geographical mobility over the life course: motivations and implications
Geist, C., & McManus, P. A. (2008) · Population Space and Place · doi:10.1002/psp.508 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Quantitative analysis of urban form: a multidisciplinary review
Clifton, K. J., Ewing, R., Knaap, G., & Song, Y. (2008) · Journal of Urbanism International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability · doi:10.1080/17549170801903496 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Relationship Between Urban Sprawl and Weight of United States Youth
EWING, R., Brownson, R. C., & Berrigan, D. A. (2006) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.08.020 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Fat city: Questioning the relationship between urban sprawl and obesity
Eid, J., Overman, H. G., Puga, D., & Turner, M. A. (2008) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2007.12.002 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata. 2nd edition
Rabe‐Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2008) · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Environment and physical activity dynamics: The role of residential self-selection
Boone‐Heinonen, J., Gordon‐Larsen, P., Guilkey, D. K., Jacobs, D. R., & Popkin, B. M. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.09.003 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationFindings From the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P., Wm, R., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J. W., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M. L., et al. (2010) · Cited by 172 · see citing works
THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN URBAN SPRAWL AND OBESITY: IS IT A TWO‐WAY STREET?
Plantinga, A. J., & Bernell, S. L. (2007) · Journal of Regional Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9787.2007.00533.x · Cited by 162 · see citing works
The Built Environment and Physical Activity Levels
Lee, I.-M. M., Ewing, R., & Sesso, H. D. (2009) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.06.007 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Nutritional Epidemiology, 2nd Edition
Lauderdale, D. S. (1999) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-199901000-00041 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Neighbourhood inequalities in health and health-related behaviour: results of selective migration?
van Lenthe, F. V., Martikainen, P., & Mackenbach, J. (2007) · Health and Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2005.09.013 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
What neighborhood area captures built environment features related to adolescent physical activity?
Boone-Heinonen, J., Popkin, B. M., Song, Y., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2010) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.06.015 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationValidation of a GIS facilities database: quantification and implications of error.
Boone, J., Gordon-Larsen, P., Stewart, J. D., & Popkin, B. (2008) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.11.008 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationProspective Study of Urban Form and Physical Activity in the Black Women's Health Study
Coogan, P. F., White, L. F., Adler, T. J., Hathaway, K. M., Palmer, J. R., & Rosenberg, L. A. (2009) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwp264 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
How much does income matter in neighborhood choice?
Clark, W. A. V., & Ledwith, V. (2007) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-007-9026-9 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Boone‐Heinonen, J., Evenson, K. R., Song, Y., & Gordon‐Larsen, P. (2010) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-45 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationScharoun-Lee, M., Kaufman, J. S., Popkin, B. M., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2008) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2008.075721 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationScharoun-Lee, M., Adair, L. S., Kaufman, J. S., & Gordon‐Larsen, P. (2009) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.12.009 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationHou, N., Popkin, B. M., Jacobs Jr., D. R., Song, Y., Guilkey, D., Lewis, C. E., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2010) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.08.005 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Link between Neighborhood Poverty and Health: Context or Composition?
Do, D. P., & Finch, B. K. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwn182 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Berry, T. R., Spence, J. C., Blanchard, C. M., Cutumisu, N., Edwards, J., & Selfridge, G. (2010) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-57 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The Impact of Community-Level Variables on Individual-Level Outcomes
Ángeles, G., Guilkey, D. K., & Mroz, T. A. (2005) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124104273069 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationNeo-materialist theory and the temporal relationship between income inequality and longevity change
Clarkwest, A. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.12.034 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Boone-Heinonen, J., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2011) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2009.105064 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationGlymour, M. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.12.035 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Morgan, S. L., & Winship, C. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511804564.002 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Cameron AC Trivedi PK Microeconomics: Methods and Applications 2005 New York: Cambridge University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mozaffarian, D., Afshin, A., Benowitz, N. L., Bittner, V., Daniels, S. R., Franch, H. A., Jacobs, D. R., Kraus, W. E., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Krummel, D. A., et al. (2012) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e318260a20b · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Kärmeniemi, M., Lankila, T., Ikäheimo, T., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., & Korpelainen, R. (2018) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kax043 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Boone-Heinonen, J. (2011) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.283 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Boone-Heinonen, J., Guilkey, D. K., Evenson, K. R., & Gordon-Larsen, P.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- ORCID
- Evenson, Kelly R
- Venue
- International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity
- Published
- 2010-10-04
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 70-70
- ISSN
- 1479-5868 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2959083
- OpenAlex
- W2145499799
- Cited by
- 134
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 12.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (P01-HD31921)
- National Institutes of Health (2r24hd050924-06)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC SIP No. 5-00, P01-HD31921, R36EH000380)
- Gillings School of Public Health
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (27516-2524, P01‐HD31921)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES010126)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01-HD31921)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD039183, R24 HD-050924, P01- HD31921, R01HD057194, P01HD031921)
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (P01HD31921)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Urban Green Space and Health
- Keywords
- built environment, physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, adolescence, early adulthood, residential mobility, crime, physical activity facilities, street connectivity, land cover diversity, household income, unmeasured confounding
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
