Fast Food Restaurants and Food Stores: Longitudinal Associations With Diet in Young to Middle-aged Adults: The CARDIA Study
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BACKGROUND: A growing body of cross-sectional, small-sample research has led to policy strategies to reduce food deserts--neighborhoods with little or no access to healthy foods--by limiting fast food restaurants and small food stores and increasing access to supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods. METHODS: We used 15 years of longitudinal data from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study, a cohort of US young adults (aged 18-30 years at baseline) (n = 5115), with linked time-varying geographic information system-derived food resource measures. Using repeated measures from 4 examination periods (n = 15,854 person-examination observations) and conditional regression (conditioned on the individual), we modeled fast food consumption, diet quality, and adherence to fruit and vegetable recommendations as a function of fast food chain, supermarket, or grocery store availability (counts per population) within less than 1.00 km, 1.00 to 2.99 km, 3.00 to 4.99 km, and 5.00 to 8.05 km of respondents' homes. Models were sex stratified, controlled for individual sociodemographic characteristics and neighborhood poverty, and tested for interaction by individual-level income. RESULTS: Fast food consumption was related to fast food availability among low-income respondents, particularly within 1.00 to 2.99 km of home among men (coefficient, 0.34; 95% confidence interval, 0.16-0.51). Greater supermarket availability was generally unrelated to diet quality and fruit and vegetable intake, and relationships between grocery store availability and diet outcomes were mixed. CONCLUSION: Our findings provide some evidence for zoning restrictions on fast food restaurants within 3 km of low-income residents but suggest that increased access to food stores may require complementary or alternative strategies to promote dietary behavior change.
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Four larger cross-sectional studies found greater accessibility to neighborhood supermarkets was associated with more healthful dietary habits; 1 small cross-sectional study and the only large longitudinal study did not.
“Four larger cross-sectional studies found that greater accessibility to neighborhood supermarkets (presence, number, or distance) was associated with more healthful dietary habits284–287; 1 small cross-sectional study288 and the only large longitudinal study289 did not.”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [289]
In 1 longitudinal analysis, number of neighborhood fast-food restaurants per capita was associated with fast-food consumption only among low-income younger adults.
“In 1 longitudinal analysis, the number of neighborhood fast-food restaurants per capita was associated with fast-food consumption only among low-income younger adults.289”
From Population Approaches to Improve Diet, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association (2012) · cites this paper as [289]
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- Authors
- Boone-Heinonen, J.
- Venue
- Archives of Internal Medicine
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2011-07-11
- Volume
- 171
- Issue
- 13
- Pages
- 1162
- ISSN
- 0003-9926 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3178268
- OpenAlex
- W2026994539
- Cited by
- 382
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 37
- FWCI
- 71.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Archives of Internal Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (n01hc95095-66-0-1, 2r24hd050924-06, n01hc48050-59-0-1, n01hc48048-58-0-1, n01hc48047-55-0-1, n01hc48049-61-0-1)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01AA012162)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (N01HC48050, R01HL114091, R0-HL104580, N01 HC 95095, N01 HC048048, N01-HC-048049, N01 HC095095, N01 HC048050, N01-HC48048, N01-HC-48-049, R01HL104580, N01 HC048047, N01-HC-480-47)
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32MH075854)
- National Cancer Institute (R01CA121152, R01CA109831)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK56350, P30DK056350)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES10126), P30ES010126)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR031982)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K01HD044263, R24 HD-050924)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Food Security and Health in Diverse Populations
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Keywords
- fast food restaurants, food deserts, food store availability, supermarket access, grocery stores, fast food consumption, diet quality, fruit and vegetable intake, low-income communities, neighborhood poverty, zoning restrictions, young adults, CARDIA study
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Alabama, California, Chicago, Coronary Disease, Diet, Female, Food Supply, Fruit, Humans, Income, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Minnesota, Obesity, Poverty Areas, Public Policy, Research Design, Residence Characteristics, Restaurants, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Vegetables, Health Behavior, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Young Adult, Fast Foods
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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