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Global population genetic structure and demographic trajectories of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens
Open accessAbstract
Background: The black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ) is the most promising insect candidate for nutrient-recycling through bioconversion of organic waste into biomass, thereby improving sustainability of protein supplies for animal feed and facilitating transition to a circular economy. Contrary to conventional livestock, genetic resources of farmed insects remain poorly characterised. We present the first comprehensive population genetic characterisation of H. illucens . Based on 15 novel microsatellite markers, we genotyped and analysed 2862 individuals from 150 wild and captive populations originating from 57 countries on seven subcontinents. Results: We identified 16 well-distinguished genetic clusters indicating substantial global population structure. The data revealed genetic hotspots in central South America and successive northwards range expansions within the indigenous ranges of the Americas. Colonisations and naturalisations of largely unique genetic profiles occurred on all non-native continents, either preceded by demographically independent founder events from various single sources or involving admixture scenarios. A decisive primarily admixed Polynesian bridgehead population serially colonised the entire Australasian region and its secondarily admixed descendants successively mediated invasions into Africa and Europe. Conversely, captive populations from several continents traced back to a single North American origin and exhibit considerably reduced genetic diversity, although some farmed strains carry distinct genetic signatures. We highlight genetic footprints characteristic of progressing domestication due to increasing socio-economic importance of H. illucens , and ongoing introgression between domesticated strains globally traded for large-scale farming and wild populations in some regions. Conclusions: We document the dynamic population genetic history of a cosmopolitan dipteran of South American origin shaped by striking geographic patterns. These reflect both ancient dispersal routes, and stochastic and heterogeneous anthropogenic introductions during the last century leading to pronounced diversification of worldwide structure of H. illucens . Upon the recent advent of its agronomic commercialisation, however, current human-mediated translocations of the black soldier fly largely involve genetically highly uniform domesticated strains, which meanwhile threaten the genetic integrity of differentiated unique local resources through introgression. Our in-depth reconstruction of the contemporary and historical demographic trajectories of H. illucens emphasises benchmarking potential for applied future research on this emerging model of the prospering insect-livestock sector.
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“industrial strains often harbour a narrowed gene pool due to breeding stocks having shared provenance, founding events from colony establishments and repeated genetic bottlenecks (Ståhls et al. 2020; Sandrock et al. 2021; Kaya et al. 2021).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021
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“Globally, 66% of allelic diversity resides within Neotropics strains”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021
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“High genetic diversity is present among global BSF strains (Ståhls et al. 2020; Sandrock et al. 2021; Kaya et al. 2021; Generalovic et al. 2023)”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kaya, C., Generalovic, T. N., Ståhls, G., Hauser, M., Samayoa, A. C., Nunes-Silva, C. G., Roxburgh, H., Wohlfahrt, J., Ewusie, E. A., Kenis, M., Hanboonsong, Y., Orozco, J., Carrejo, N., Nakamura, S., Gasco, L., Rojo, S., Tanga, C. M., Meier, R., Rhode, C., Picard, C. J., Jiggins, C. D., Leiber, F., Tomberlin, J. K., Hasselmann, M., Blanckenhorn, W. U., Kapun, M., & Sandrock, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Finnish Museum of Natural History (FI)
- California Department of Food and Agriculture (US)
- National Chung Hsing University (TW)
- Universidade Federal do Amazonas (BR)
- University of Stirling (GB)
- Forschungsinstitut für Biologischen Landbau (CH)
- Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GH)
- CABI Switzerland (CH)
- Khon Kaen University (TH)
- Universidad del Valle (CO)
- Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JP)
- University of Turin (IT)
- University of Alicante (ES)
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (KE)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Indiana University Indianapolis (US)
- Texas A&M University (US)
- University of Hohenheim (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Sandrock, Christoph
- ORCID
- Generalovic, Tomas N.
- Ståhls, Gunilla
- Hauser, Martin
- Nunes-Silva, Carlos G.
- Roxburgh, Heather
- Ewusie, Ebenezer A.
- Kenis, Marc
- Hanboonsong, Yupa
- Carrejo, Nancy
- Nakamura, Satoshi
- Gasco, Laura
- Rojo, Santos
- Tanga, Chrysantus M.
- Meier, Rudolf
- Rhode, Clint
- Picard, Christine J.
- Jiggins, Chris D.
- Leiber, Florian
- Tomberlin, Jeffery K.
- Hasselmann, Martin
- Blanckenhorn, Wolf U.
- Kapun, Martin
- Sandrock, Christoph
- Venue
- BMC Biology
- Published
- 2021-05-05
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 94-94
- ISSN
- 1741-7007 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8101212
- OpenAlex
- W3157995364
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 10
- FWCI
- 12.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- BMC Biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RUA, Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Alicante (Universidad de Alicante) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft (627000824)
- Swiss National Science Foundation (IZ01Z0_147278, 400540_152154)
- Austrian Science Foundation (FWF P32275)
- Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (108866-001)
- National Research Foundation, South Africa (CSRP170506229933)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect Utilization and Effects
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Diptera species taxonomy and behavior
- Keywords
- Hermetia illucens, population structure, demographic history, microsatellite markers, domestication, introgression, invasive species, range expansion, founder events, genetic diversity, insect farming, organic waste bioconversion, captive populations
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Feed, Demography, Diptera, Genetics, Population, Humans, Larva
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