The human fetal adrenal produces cortisol but no detectable aldosterone throughout the second trimester
Open accessAbstract
Human fetal adrenal glands are highly active and, with the placenta, regulate circulating progesterone, estrogen and corticosteroids in the fetus. At birth the adrenals are essential for neonate salt retention through secretion of aldosterone, while adequate glucocorticoids are required to prevent adrenal insufficiency. The objective of this study was to carry out the first comprehensive analysis of adrenal steroid levels and steroidogenic enzyme expression in normal second trimester human fetuses. This was an observational study of steroids, messenger RNA transcripts and proteins in adrenals from up to 109 second trimester fetuses (11 weeks to 21 weeks) at the Universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow. The study design was balanced to show effects of maternal smoking. Concentrations of 19 intra-adrenal steroids were quantified using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Pregnenolone was the most abundant steroid while levels of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and progesterone were also high. Cortisol was present in all adrenals, but aldosterone was undetected and Δ 4 androgens were low/undetected. CYP17A1 , CYP21A2 and CYP11A1 were all highly expressed and the proteins localized to the adrenal fetal zone. There was low-level expression of HSD3B and CYP11B2, with HSD3B located mainly in the definitive zone. Maternal smoking altered fetal plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) ( P = 0.052) and intra-adrenal progesterone, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and 16α-hydroxyprogesterone, but not plasma or intra-adrenal cortisol, or intra-adrenal DHEAS. Fetal adrenal GATA6 and NR5A1 were increased by maternal smoking. The human fetal adrenal gland produces cortisol but very low levels of Δ 4 androgens and no detectable aldosterone throughout the second trimester. The presence of cortisol in fetal adrenals suggests that adrenal regulation of circulating fetal ACTH remains a factor in development of congenital adrenal hyperplasia during the second trimester, while a relative lack of aldosterone explains the salt-wasting disorders frequently seen in extreme pre-term neonates. Finally, maternal smoking may alter fetal adrenal sensitivity to ACTH, which could have knock-on effects on post-natal health.
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The sulfation of androsterone and DHEA in fetal adrenals is likely a reflection of high SULT2A1 levels in this tissue.
“which is likely to be a reflection of the high levels of sulfotransferase type 2A1 (SULT2A1) in this tissue [21].”
From Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus (2019) · cites this paper as [21]
The Δ5 steroids pregnenolone, 17α-hydroxypregnenolone, and DHEA probably come from the fetal adrenal gland.
“and these steroids probably come from the fetal adrenal gland [20,21].”
From Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus (2019) · cites this paper as [21]
Tissue steroid levels were quantified by LC-HRMS.
“Extraction and quantification of tissue steroid levels by LC-HRMS have been described previously [21].”
From Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus (2019) · cites this paper as [21]
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Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus
O’Shaughnessy, P. J., Antignac, J. P., Le Bizec, B., Morvan, M.-L., Svechnikov, K., Söder, O., Savchuk, I., Monteiro, A., Soffientini, U., Johnston, Z. C., et al. (2019) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Self-citationJones, S. L., Dufoix, R., Laplante, D. P., Elgbeili, G., Patel, R., Chakravarty, M. M., King, S., & Pruessner, J. C. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00144 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Characterization of human adrenal steroidogenesis during fetal development
Melau, C., Nielsen, J. E., Frederiksen, H., Kilcoyne, K., Perlman, S., Lundvall, L., Langhoff Thuesen, L., Juul Hare, K., Andersson, A.-M., Mitchell, R. T., et al. (2019) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2018-01759 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Melau, C., Nielsen, J. E., Perlman, S., Lundvall, L., Langhoff Thuesen, L., Juul Hare, K., Schou Hammerum, M., Frederiksen, H., Mitchell, R. T., Juul, A., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaa852 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
- Authors
- Johnston, Z. C., Bellingham, M., Filis, P., Soffientini, U., Hough, D., Bhattacharya, S., Simard, M., Hammond, G. L., King, P., O’Shaughnessy, P. J., & Fowler, P. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Fowler, Paul A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- BMC Medicine
- Published
- 2018-02-12
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 23-23
- ISSN
- 1741-7015 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5808459
- OpenAlex
- W2786036241
- Cited by
- 44
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 4.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- BMC Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (acceptedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Aberdeen University Research Archive (Aberdeen University) (submittedVersion)
- cIRcle (University of British Columbia) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/L010011/1, MR/K501335/1)
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MOP- 111102)
- Canadian Research Chair in Reproductive Health
- Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé
- Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Hormonal Regulation and Hypertension
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Keywords
- fetal adrenal gland, cortisol, aldosterone, second trimester fetus, steroidogenesis, steroidogenic enzymes, CYP17A1, CYP21A2, CYP11A1, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, CYP11B2, GATA6, steroidogenic factor 1, ACTH, maternal smoking, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, antenatal glucocorticoids
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Adult, Aldosterone, Female, Fetus, Humans, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Trimester, Second, Young Adult
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