Treatment gap, help-seeking, stigma and magnitude of alcohol use disorder in rural Ethiopia

Zewdu, Selamawit; Hanlon, Charlotte; Fekadu, Abebaw; Medhin, Girmay; Teferra, Solomon

doi:10.1186/s13011-019-0192-7

Cited by 110Substance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesMental Health Treatment and AccessHomelessness and Social Issues

Treatment gap, help-seeking, stigma and magnitude of alcohol use disorder in rural Ethiopia

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Zewdu, Selamawit, Hanlon, Charlotte, Fekadu, Abebaw, Medhin, Girmay, Teferra, Solomon·2019·Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy

DOI 10.1186/s13011-019-0192-7PMC PMC6339347

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Although alcohol use disorders contribute a high proportion of population disease burden, the treatment gap is large, especially in low- and middle-income countries. To narrow this gap, contextually relevant evidence is needed to inform service development in low- and middle-income country settings. The aim of this study was to assess the magnitude of the treatment gap for alcohol use disorder, help-seeking behavior, stigma and barriers to care among people with alcohol use disorder in rural Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional, house-to-house survey was conducted in Sodo district, south Ethiopia. A sample of 1500 adults was selected using simple random sampling from a census of households and screened for alcohol use disorder using the alcohol use disorders identification tool (AUDIT). Help-seeking, barriers to care and internalized stigma were investigated among people with moderately severe alcohol use disorder (AUDIT score ≥ 16). Poisson regression with robust variance was used to examine factors associated with alcohol use disorder. RESULTS: The prevalence of alcohol use disorder (AUDIT ≥8) in the past 12 months was 13.9% (25.8% in men and 2.4% in women, p-value < 0.001). People with alcohol use disorder had increased disability (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) 1.03, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01, 1.03) and higher depressive symptom scores (aPR 1.02, 95% CI 1.01, 1.04). The treatment gap was very wide, about 87.0% (only 13% sought help) of participants with an AUDIT score ≥ 16 had never sought help for their alcohol problems and 70.0% reported high internalized stigma. Major barriers to seeking help were wanted to handle the problem on their own, believing that it would get better by itself and being unsure about where to go. CONCLUSIONS: Although alcohol use disorders are common problems in Ethiopian community, the unmet need for treatment is substantial. An integrated care approach has the potential to address this need, but stigma and low awareness may be major barriers to help-seeking. Interventions to reduce stigma and enhance community awareness are recommended.

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In response to experiences of substance use and depression stigma, patients may delay seeking treatment or discontinue treatment, which may adversely affect their physical health.
“In response to experiences of SU and depression stigma, patients may delay seeking treatment (van Boekel et al., 2013) or discontinue treatment (Knaak et al., 2017) which may adversely affect their physical health (Zewdu et al., 2019).”
From Siyakhana: A Hybrid Type 2 Effectiveness-Implementation Stepped-Wedge Trial to Reduce Stigma Towards Substance Use and Depression Among Community Health Workers in HIV/TB Care in South Africa (2025) · cites this paper as Zewdu et al., 2019
The Background (page unavailable) says alcohol use disorders can harm physical health and often go untreated. The Discussion (page unavailable) says stigma may deter help-seeking, but the paper does not establish that stigma-related treatment delays or discontinuation adversely affect physical health, particularly for depression. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The treatment gap for SUDs in Africa is as high as 87%.
“In fact, the treatment gap for SUDs in Africa is as high as 87% [11].”
From A scoping review of substance use brief interventions in Africa (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
The Abstract Results report an 87% treatment gap among participants with alcohol problems and AUDIT scores ≥16 in rural Ethiopia. That supports the number, but not its extension to substance use disorders generally or to Africa as a whole. The Methods define the measured gap specifically for alcohol use disorder. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The AUD treatment gap is particularly marked in low-income and lower-middle-income countries.
“This gap is particularly marked in low-income and lower-middle-income countries (9, 11, 12).”
From Integration of Alcohol Use Disorder Interventions in General Health Care Settings in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
AUD is often not detected by health care providers in sub-Saharan Africa, contributing to a wide treatment gap.
“Despite this, AUD is often not detected in health care settings, which contributes to a wide treatment gap.”
From Integration of Alcohol Use Disorder Interventions in General Health Care Settings in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review (2022) · cites this paper as [9]

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Girma, E., Ketema, B., Mulatu, T., Kohrt, B. A., Wahid, S. S., Heim, E., Gronholm, P. C., Hanlon, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-789548/v1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Gellé, T., Paquet, A., Wenkourama, D., Girard, M., Lacroix, A., Togan, R., Degboe, Z. S., Boni, R. B., Sacca, H. R., Boumédiène, F., et al. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19032-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Decision: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R2/PR12
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr12
Recommendation: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R2/PR11
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr11
Decision: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R1/PR9
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr9
Recommendation: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R1/PR8
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr8
Review: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R1/PR7
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr7
Decision: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R0/PR5
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr5
Recommendation: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R0/PR4
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr4
Review: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R0/PR3
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr3
Review: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R0/PR2
Yimer, T. M., Chan, G. C., Belete, H., et al. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr2
Author comment: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R0/PR1
Mekonen, T. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr1
Author comment: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R1/PR6
Mekonen, T. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr6
Author comment: Treatment-seeking behavior and barriers to mental health service utilization for depressive symptoms and hazardous drinking: The role of religious and traditional healers in mental healthcare of Northwest Ethiopia — R2/PR10
Mekonen, T. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2023.88.pr10
A pilot study of implementing an adapted model for integration of interventions for people with alcohol use disorders in Tanzanian primary healthcare facilities
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Lund, C., Breuer, E., Bhana, A., Brooke‐Sumner, C., Jordans, M. J. D., Luitel, N. P., Medhin, G., Murhar, V., Nakku, J. E. M., Nalwadda, O., et al. (2025) · doi:10.1093/med/9780198898818.003.0041
Self-citation
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Additional file 1 of Pathways into and out of homelessness among people with severe mental illness in rural Ethiopia: a qualitative study
Smartt, C., Ketema, K., Frissa, S., Tekola, B., Birhane, R., Eshetu, T., Selamu, M., Prince, M. J., Fekadu, A., & Hanlon, C. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14267032
Self-citation
Additional file 2 of Treating alcohol use disorder in the absence of specialized services – evaluation of the moving inpatient Treatment Camp approach in Uganda
Ertl, V., Groß, M., Mwaka, S. O., & Neuner, F. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17110688
Additional file 4 of Feasibility and acceptability of a peer provider delivered substance use screening and brief intervention program for youth in Kenya
Jaguga, F., Kwobah, E. K., Giusto, A. M., Apondi, E., Barasa, J., Korir, M., Rono, W., Kosgei, G., Puffer, E. S., & Ott, M. A. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26641042
Additional file 2 of Feasibility and acceptability of a peer provider delivered substance use screening and brief intervention program for youth in Kenya
Jaguga, F., Kwobah, E. K., Giusto, A. M., Apondi, E., Barasa, J., Korir, M., Rono, W., Kosgei, G., Puffer, E. S., & Ott, M. A. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24580496
Additional file 1 of Feasibility and acceptability of a peer provider delivered substance use screening and brief intervention program for youth in Kenya
Jaguga, F., Kwobah, E. K., Giusto, A. M., Apondi, E., Barasa, J., Korir, M., Rono, W., Kosgei, G., Puffer, E. S., & Ott, M. A. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24580388
Additional file 1 of Epidemiology of alcohol use disorder in the general population of Togo and Benin: the ALCOTRANS study
Gellé, T., Paquet, A., Wenkourama, D., Girard, M. F., Lacroix, A., Togan, R. M., Degboe, Z. S., Boni, R. B., Sacca, H., Boumédiène, F., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25989131
Additional file 1 of Treating alcohol use disorder in the absence of specialized services – evaluation of the moving inpatient Treatment Camp approach in Uganda
Ertl, V., Groß, M., Mwaka, S. O., & Neuner, F. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.17110685
Additional file 1 of Mental health stigma and discrimination in Ethiopia: evidence synthesis to inform stigma reduction interventions
Girma, E., Ketema, B., Mulatu, T., Kohrt, B. A., Wahid, S. S., Heim, E., Gronholm, P. C., Hanlon, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20147067
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Additional file 3 of Feasibility and acceptability of a peer provider delivered substance use screening and brief intervention program for youth in Kenya
Jaguga, F., Kwobah, E. K., Giusto, A. M., Apondi, E., Barasa, J., Korir, M., Rono, W., Kosgei, G., Puffer, E. S., & Ott, M. A. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26641039

16. Treatment Contact Coverage, Help–Seeking, Barriers to Care, and Stigma for Alcohol Use Disorder: Findings From a Community–Based Study in Ethiopia
Gizachew, K. D., MYERS, B. J., Mihretu, A., & Teferra, S. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.03.250
Self-citation
Perceived stigma, self stigma and barriers to treatment in alcohol dependent individuals
Tripathi, R., Singh, S., Prithviraj, M., & Nair, A. (2023) · PubMed Central · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.1404
Awareness of alcohol treatment options and barriers to treatment-seeking in Rombo District, Tanzania
Donath, L. T., & Msemwa, U. S. (2026) · Discover Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12982-026-02861-7
Help-seeking behavior for problematic substance uses in Bahir Dar town, North-West Ethiopia
Belete, H., Mekonen, T., Fekadu, W., Legas, G., & Getnet, A. (2018) · Greater South Information System · doi:10.60692/4bhag-xdq23
Magnitude and correlates of alcohol use disorder in south Gondar zone, northwest Ethiopia: A community based cross-sectional study
Legas, G., Asnakew, S., Belete, A., Beyene, G. M., Wubet, G. M., Bayih, W. A., Chanie, E. S., Tigabu, A., & Dessie, T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0257804 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Authors: Zewdu, S., Hanlon, C., Fekadu, A., Medhin, G., & Teferra, S.
Affiliations: King's College London (GB)
Brighton and Sussex Medical School (GB)
Addis Ababa University (ET)
Harvard University (US)
ORCID: Zewdu, Selamawit
Hanlon, Charlotte
Fekadu, Abebaw
Medhin, Girmay
Teferra, Solomon
Venue: Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2019-01-18
Volume: 14
Issue: 1
Pages: 4-4
ISSN: 1747-597X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/s13011-019-0192-7
PMC: PMC6339347
OpenAlex: W2915241928
Cited by: 110
References: 54
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 2
FWCI: 8.56
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: UK Aid, from the UK Government
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Homelessness and Social Issues
Keywords: alcoholism, treatment gap, help-seeking, self-stigma, barriers to care, prevalence, rural Ethiopia, depressive symptoms, disability, integrated care, AUDIT screening
MeSH terms: Help-Seeking Behavior, Adult, Alcoholism, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Ethiopia, Female, Health Services Accessibility, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Rural Population, Social Support, Suicide, Attempted, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Social Stigma, Suicidal Ideation

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Treatment gap, help-seeking, stigma and magnitude of alcohol use disorder in rural Ethiopia

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