A tale of two sites: how inflammation can reshape the microbiomes of the gut and lungs
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Inflammation can directly and indirectly modulate the bacterial composition of the microbiome. Although studies of inflammation primarily focus on its function to negatively select against potential pathogens, some bacterial species have the ability to exploit inflammatory byproducts for their benefit. Inflammatory cells release reactive nitrogen species as antimicrobial effectors against infection, but some facultative anaerobes can also utilize the increase in extracellular nitrate in their environment for anaerobic respiration and growth. This phenomenon has been studied in the gastrointestinal tract, where blooms of facultative anaerobic Gammaproteobacteria, primarily Escherichia coli, often occur during colonic inflammation. In cystic fibrosis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, another Gammaproteobacteria facultative anaerobe, can reduce nitrogen for anaerobic respiration and it blooms in the airways of the chronically inflamed cystic fibrosis lung. This review focuses on the evidence that inflammation can provide terminal electron acceptors for anaerobic respiration and can support blooms of facultative anaerobes, such as E. coli and P. aeruginosa in distinct, but similar, environments of the inflamed gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
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Elevated rates of generation of these oxidative inflammatory mediators can have direct effects on enterocytes and mucosal integrity, impair NO-dependent vascular function, reduce nitrate and nitrite absorption, and exert selective pressure on bacteria by augmenting innate anti-bacterial effects.
“Elevated rates of generation of these oxidative inflammatory mediators can have direct effects on enterocytes and mucosal integrity, impair NO-dependent vascular function, reduce nitrate and nitrite absorption, and exert selective pressure on bacteria by augmenting innate anti-bacterial effects[204,233,321–324].”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [323]
In the setting of inflammation, excess nitrite and nitrate are formed along with reactive oxygen radicals and nitrogen oxides through NO oxidation, thereby increasing the amount of substrate available for respiratory denitrification and rapid bacterial growth.
“Presumably, in the setting of inflammation, excess nitrite and nitrate are formed along with reactive oxygen radicals and nitrogen oxides through NO oxidation, thereby increasing the amount of substrate available for respiratory denitrification and rapid bacterial growth[323,337].”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [323]
Bacterial nitrate metabolism in the gut is an important selective factor in pathogenic bacterial survival.
“suggesting that bacterial nitrate metabolism in the gut is an important selective factor in pathogenic bacterial survival,”
From Enterosalivary nitrate metabolism and the microbiome: Intersection of microbial metabolism, nitric oxide and diet in cardiac and pulmonary vascular health (2017) · cites this paper as [323]
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- Authors
- Scales, B. S., Dickson, R. P., & Huffnagle, G. B.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Huffnagle, Gary B
- Venue
- Journal of Leukocyte Biology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2016-06-30
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 943-950
- ISSN
- 0741-5400 (ISSN-L)
- 1938-3673
- PMC
- PMC5069096
- OpenAlex
- W2471545969
- Cited by
- 109
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 0.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Leukocyte Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. National Institutes of Health
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL114447, T32HL00774921)
- Nesbitt Program for Cystic Fibrosis Research
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Bacterial biofilms and quorum sensing
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Periodontics › Oral microbiology and periodontitis research
- Keywords
- inflammation, gut microbiota, lung microbiome, facultative anaerobes, anaerobic respiration, reactive nitrogen species, nitrate, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Gammaproteobacteria, colonic inflammation, cystic fibrosis, bacterial blooms, terminal electron acceptors
- MeSH terms
- Gastrointestinal Microbiome, Anaerobiosis, Colitis, Cystic Fibrosis, Escherichia coli Infections, Humans, Inflammation, Lung, Mucus, Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen, Oxidation-Reduction, Pseudomonas Infections, Gammaproteobacteria, Feedback, Physiological, Gastrointestinal Tract, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II, Microbiota
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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