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Gender differences in depression: Critical review
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Background: With few exceptions, the prevalence, incidence and morbidity risk of depressive disorders are higher in females than in males, beginning at mid-puberty and persisting through adult life. Aims: To review putative risk factors leading to gender differences in depressive disorders. Method: A critical review of the literature, dealing separately with artefactual and genuine determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders. Results: Although artefactual determinants may enhance a female preponderance to some extent, gender differences in depressive disorders are genuine. At present, adverse experiences in childhood, depression and anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence, sociocultural roles with related adverse experiences, and psychological attributes related to vulnerability to life events and coping skills are likely to be involved. Genetic and biological factors and poor social support, however, have few or no effects in the emergence of gender differences. Conclusions: Determinants of gender differences in depressive disorders are far from being established and their combination into integrated aetiological models continues to be lacking.
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“and since depression already occurs with higher prevalence in women [7]”
From Sleep, hormones, and circadian rhythms throughout the menstrual cycle in healthy women and women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [7]
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“These prevalence estimates are considerably higher than those observed in the general population [1] and are similar to, or higher than, those observed in patients with diabetes [24], Parkinson’s disease [25] and cancer [26].”
From The prevalence of depression in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2013) · cites this paper as [25]
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Lipps, G. E., Lowe, G. A., Haye, W. D. L., Longman-Mills, S., Clarke, T. R., Barton, E. N., & Bain, B. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 27
Meta-analysis of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism in major depressive disorder: the role of gender
Klein, M., Schmoeger, M., Kasper, S. F., & Schosser, A. (2016) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622975.2015.1083615 · Cited by 27
“As many conditions in human life, most of the psychiatric disorders show gender differences regarding incidence, clinical features, age of onset or outcome (Piccinelli and Wilkinson 2000; Harrison and Tunbridge 2008; Diflorio and Jones 2010; Essau et al. 2010; McLean et al. 2011; Ochoa et al. 2012).”
Hopelessness among adults with congenital heart disease: Cause for despair or hope?
Eslami, B., Kovacs, A. H., Moons, P., Abbasi, K., & Jackson, J. L. (2016) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.12.090 · Cited by 27
[Mental disorders and participation in the labor market: a multicenter national study in Brazil].
Assunção, A., Lima, E. D. P., & Guimarães, M. (2017) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311x00166815 · Cited by 13
Tuasikal, A. N. A., & Retnowati, S. (2019) · Gadjah Mada Journal of Psychology (GamaJoP) · doi:10.22146/gamajop.46356 · Cited by 27
Chireh, B., & D’Arcy, C. (2019) · Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1177/2042018819865828 · Cited by 30
Nam, G. E., Eum, M.-J., Huh, Y., Jung, J., & Choi, M. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.100 · Cited by 27
Comparing the Interpersonal Behavior of Distressed Couples With and Without Depression
Knobloch-Fedders, L. M., Knobloch, L. K., Durbin, C. E., Rosen, A., & Critchfield, K. L. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21998 · Cited by 27
Swardfager, W., Yang, P., Herrmann, N., Lanctôt, K. L., Shah, B. R., Kiss, A., & OH, P. I. (2015) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12872 · Cited by 28
Brummett, B. H., Babyak, M. A., Williams, R. B., Harris, K. M., Jiang, R., Kraus, W. E., Singh, A., Costa, P. T., Georgiades, A., & Siegler, I. C. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114451 · Cited by 27
Direct and indirect effect of depression in adolescence on adult wages
Johar, M., & Truong, J. (2014) · Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/00036846.2014.962227 · Cited by 29
“Such disparity in the effect of depression on reduced educational attainment between genders has been attributed to females being more biologically vulnerable to the effects of the depression than males (Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
Moderation of gender on smoking and depression in Chinese Americans
Luk, J. W., & Tsoh, J. Y. (2010) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.021 · Cited by 27
“…have largely focused on the roles of cognitive vulnerabilities, ruminative response style, negative affect and weight concerns (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000); future research should examine how ethnicity and smoking status may be related to gender differences in depression.”
Adverse childhood experiences worsen cognitive distortion during adult bipolar depression
Poletti, S., Colombo, C., & Benedetti, F. (2014) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.07.013 · Cited by 27
van der Waerden, J. E. B., Hoefnagels, C., Hosman, C. M. H., & Jansen, M. W. J. (2014) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764014522751 · Cited by 27
“These social and personal characteristics providing resilience to stress are less available to lower-status individuals, although they still vary within these disadvantaged samples (Denton, Prus, & Walters, 2004; Elliott, 2001; Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000).”
for the CHARTER Group, Hammond, E. R., Crum, R. M., Treisman, G. J., Mehta, S. H., Clifford, D. B., Ellis, R. J., Gelman, B. B., Grant, I., Letendre, S. L., et al. (2016) · Journal of NeuroVirology · doi:10.1007/s13365-015-0416-1 · Cited by 27
Imai, C. M., Halldorsson, T. I., Eiríksdóttir, G., Cotch, M. F., Steingrímsdóttir, L., Þórsdóttir, I., Launer, L. J., Harris, T. B., Gudnason, V. G., & Gunnarsdóttir, I. (2015) · Journal of Nutritional Science · doi:10.1017/jns.2015.27 · Cited by 27
Common mental health disorders.
Bessant, M., & Ekers, D. (2011) · PubMed · Cited by 28
Metadata
- Authors
- Piccinelli, M., & Wilkinson, G.
- Affiliations
- Ospedale di Circolo e Fondazione Macchi (IT)
- Royal Liverpool University Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Piccinelli, Marco
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 177
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 486-492
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2055218553
- Cited by
- 2,376
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 94 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 72 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 118 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 138 · 2018: 142 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 134 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 134 · 2013: 114 · 2012: 112
- FWCI
- 4.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive disorders, women, risk factors, childhood adversity, childhood anxiety disorders, coping strategies, life events, genetic factors, social support, etiology
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Depressive Disorder, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Norepinephrine, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Risk Factors, Serotonin, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress, Psychological, Prevalence, Disease Progression
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